Chimera!
Wednesday, December 1, 2010
Monday, November 22, 2010
Phylum Arthropoda, Phylum Echinodermata
Phylum Arthropoda
-Largest group- more than all other animals combined
-Includes: spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, crustaceans, millipedes, centipedes, and insects.
1. Used for food, pollination, dyes, produce silk, honey, beeswax, spread diseases, yield drugs, medicine, etc.
2. Found in all types of environments; parasitize plants and animals.
3. They are carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, symbiotic.
-Most are herbivores
4. Diversity among this phylum has no equal
A. External Features of Arthropods
1. Bilateral symmetry, a metameric body
-Larvae shows all segments
-Tagmata (tagma singular) which are segments fused into functional groups such as head and thorax
-This becomes the cephalothorax
-Occurs during the process of molting
2. Jointed Appendages; new to animals
-Helps them become more successful in adaptation
-Often specialized for walking, swimming, jumping, flying, eating
-Appendages can be modified into antennae, mouth parts, legs, etc., but not wings
3. Exoskeleton: new to animals
-Keeps animals small; larger exoskeletons mean more weight. It would have to be excessively thick for the muscles to work. This leads to lack of mobility.
- Metamorphosis is the term used that encompasses an arthropod’s stages from egg to adult
4. Compound eye- corneal lens at top
-Ommatidia- visual unit
-Rhabdom- light sensitive core
-Surrounding rhabdom are 8 retinal cells
TYPES OF COMPOUND EYES
1. Appositional eyes- results in an inverted image
-Pigment cells; bees
2. Superposition
-Give right side up image
-No pigment cells; moths
3. Simple eye or ocelli
-Distinguishes light from dark
B. Internal Features
-Reduced coelom
-No cilia
-Tubular gut, mouth- anus
1. Nervous system
a. Double chain of unsegmented ganglion
b. Most control is in the ventral ganglia
c. Brain: 3 fused pairs of dorsal ganglia at anterior end
-Act as an inhibitor; will stop a reaction
-Ex: copulation, eating etc.
2. Respiratory system
a. No major respiratory organs
b. Trachea: small cuticle-lined air ducts
-Tracheoles- branches of trachea
*for gas exchange
c. Spiracles- opening to outside- prevents water loss
-Have a valve to open/close
d. In chelicerates (some spiders) have book lungs- leaf like plates, w/ a chamber in which air can be drawn in or out
-Found in aquatic arthropods such as horse shoe crab
3. Circulatory system
a. Open
b. Heart is a longitudinal vessel
4. Excretory system- terrestrial arthropods
a. Malpighian Tubules- between hind and gut
-A way of concentrating waste; helps send nitrogenous waste to hind gut
5. Reproduction
a. Sexes are usually separate
b. Mostly internal fertilization
-Oviparous-eggs released, developed outside female
-Ovoviviparous- eggs developed inside the female
C. Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Arachnida
a. Spiders, ticks, daddy long legs, mites, scorpions, etc.
b. Terrestrial- most are harmless or beneficial
c. 6 pairs of appendages
-1 pair of chelicerae instead of jaws
a. Used for capturing and paralyzing their victims
b. Fanglike or pincers
-1 pair of pedipoles (male spiders use as copulatory organ)
-Many spiders have mating dance-specific movement- and make a noise by vibrating the abdomen
-4 pairs of walking legs
d. Most are carnivores except mites (this will be on the test)
e. Most have external digestion
-Turn solid food into liquid by enzyme
f. Breathe by trachea, book lungs, or both
g. 8 simple eyes used for detecting moving objects
-Eyesight considered poor
-Uses sensory setae to sample environment (hairs on legs)
h. Web-spinning behavior
-Dependant on silk glands which produce a protein secretion- very strong substance
i. Excretory- waste is mostly uric acid
-Dangerous- black widows and brown recluse spiders
-Ticks- blood eating external parasites of mammals, birds, and reptiles throughout the world (so scary!)
- Class Merostomata- horseshoe crab
a. Genus limulus
b. Ancient - 500 million yrs old
c. One pair of chelicera
d. 5 pairs of walking legs
-Last pair have leaf-like plates at tip for digging and locomotion
e. Book gills for gas exchange
f. Covered by carapace- hard plate over cephalothorax
g. Long spine like telson- tail piece
h. Scavenge muddy/sandy substrates for annelids, small mollusks, and other invertebrates
i. Dioecious male and female
D. Subphylum Crustacea
-Crabs, shrimp, lobsters, crayfish, barnacles, pillbugs, waterfleas, etc.
a. Barnacles used to be in the Phylum Echinodermata; they are now part of sessile crustaceans
b. Mainly marines- some freshwater
c. Only arthropods with two pairs of antennae
d. Some have carapace (shield on dorsal side) over the cephalothorax
(lobster crayfish...)
-Swimmerettes (5 pairs) are primarily swimming legs
-First pair used for brooding eggs (female) or copulation (male)
-Uropods-either side of telson, flipper like-used for steering
e. Some have various number of pairs of legs on abdomen and thorax
-Biramous (double branched) appendages have a leg/gill structure with a common root at the body segment
f. Compound eyes
g. Respiration: gas exchange takes place through the gills or cuticle
h. Excretory- have green glands (located in head) instead of malpighian tubules
i. Reproduction: most sexes are separate except barnacles which are hermaphroditic
-Majority of crustaceans produce a larvae called naupilus- ancient form
E. Subphylum Myriapoda
-Millipedes, centipedes
a. Uniramous legs
Class Chilopoda- centipedes
a. Predators; found in moist places; feed on insects
b. Head region then the body consist of numerous segments
c. One pair of legs per segment
-First pair has changed into poison claws (fangs to kill prey)
Class Diplopoda -millipedes
a. Most herbivores- found in decaying vegetation
b. Head region and body with numerous segments
c. 2 pairs of legs per segment
(Really 2 segments fused together)
d. Defense, foul fluid or gas
Subphylum Hexapoda
Class Insecta
1. Largest group of organisms on earth, either number of individuals or number of species
2. Study of insects: entomology
3. Found in all habitats; few aquatic
- Wide distribution due to wings
4. Morphologically more closely related to crustaceans.
A. External Features
-Tagmata found in head, thorax, abdomen
-Cuticle composed of 4 plates called sclerites
1. Head
a. Large pair of compound eyes
b. One pair of antennae
c. Three ocelli (simple eye)
d. Mouth Parts
-Determines how the insect feeds
-Review Figure 12.144, page 242
2. Thorax
a. Three parts- each with a pair of legs
-Prothorax, Mesothorax, Metathorax
b. Wings – 2 pairs
-One pair attached to the mesothorax
-Other pair to metathorax
-If only one pair, attached to the mesothorax
c. Filled with muscles to operate wings (analogous to bird and mammal wings, not homologous)
B. Internal Features:
1. Respiration
a. Trachea extends throughout the body
b. Spiracles
-Located between segments of thorax and abdomen
2. Digestion
a. Takes place in a coiled tube – digestive tract
-Found in midgut- called stomach
3. Excretion
a. Is facilitated by the malpighian tubules
b. Helps the insect with water and electrolyte balance
c. Waste empties into hindgut
4. Sensory Receptors
a. In addition to eyes
b. Sensory hairs – sensitive to touch
c. Taste organs on mouthparts
d. Smell- Located on antennae
e. Hearing – tympanal organs
f. Chemoreceptors help detect pheromones
5. Reproduction
a. Dioecious
b. Fertilization is internal
c. Sperm goes into female at time of copulation
d. Usually only one mate, one time
e. Lay a large number of eggs
f. Show some sexual dimorphism (sexes different sizes, female usually larger than male)
6. Life Histories of Insects
a. Ecdysis (molt) – Goes through 4 to 7 times
b. Metamorphosis – Change from egg to adult form
-Two types of Metamorphosis:
1. Simple: All immature forms look like adult
-These stages are called nymphs
-Think of dragonfly nymphs
2. Complete: Immature form looks different from adult
-These immature forms are called larvae
- Think of the butterfly
c. Start with egg Larvae (wormlike, segmented) Developmental stage, sometimes several, called pupa (molt) Adult
d. Larvae could be: 1st instar larvae, 2nd instar larvae, etc. (stage between molts)
ECHINODERMS AND LESSER DEUTEROSTOMES
Phylum Echinodermata
a. All are marine forms
b. Sea stars (starfish), brittle stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea cucumbers
-Belong to the deuterostome branch of the animal kingdom, and are coelomates. (Only major invertebrates that show an affinity to lower vertebrates)
c. All radially symmetrical as adults, but with a 5 part body plan in most
d. Bilateral as larvae – free swimming
e. Water vascular system: madreporite in most (opening on top)
-How it works, Example: Sea Star:
-Water enters madreporite, goes down tube to stone canal, to ring canal which gives rise to radial canal
-Responsible for movement – forces water into tube feet
-Ampulla – Sac that pushes water into tube foot and blocks it from coming back to radial canal
f. No head or brain
g. Nervous system – Central nerve ring with branches – primitive
h. Endoskeleton is of dermal calcareous ossicles (plates) with spines covered by epidermis.
-Name derived from this feature (Greek = spiny skin)
i. Locomotion is by tube feet or by movement from arms which project from central disc of body
j. Respiration and excretion is handled by skin gills located in between spines
k. Has ability to regenerate lost parts; cut arms off or break in half
l. Reproduction – Some by regeneration
-Most by sexual reproduction
-Most have separate sexes
-Fertilization is external; Larvae free swimming
-Larvae different than trocophore larvae of mollusks
A. Class Crinoidea
1. Sea lilies and feather stars
2. Mouth and anus on upper surfaces of disk (oral side)
3. Filter feeders; mostly sessile (Figures14.18, 14.19)
4. 5 radial arms branch into other arms that support pinnules (feather-like structures)
5. Body Plans:
-Stalks – Attached organism to substrate (sea lilies)
-Claw-like structure- Anchors to substrate (feather stars)
6. Fertilization is external
-Female shelters larvae (brooding)
B. Class Asteroidia
1. True sea stars or starfish (some have more than 5 arms)
-Epidermis has pigment
-These are most familiar to us
-Found shallow to very deep
2. Important marine predators
-Help keep things in balance
3. Mouth is on lower surface
4. Can extrude the stomach through their mouth, killing and partially digesting their prey outside their body
5. Lab: Asterias
C. Class Ophiuroidea:
1. Brittle star
2. Have slender branched arms
-Which are brittle with spines
-Number of spines depends on species
-Arms move from side-to-side – Like rowing a boat
3. Feed on microplankton; many are scavengers and will eat just about anything
4. Lab: Ophiura
D. Class Echinoidea
1. Sea urchins, sand dollars, sea biscuits (page 283, Figure 14.14)
2. No distinct arms; have 5 part body plan
3. Move with tube feet with suckers
-Some have moveable spines
4. Feed on algae or planktonic organisms
5. Lab: Arbacia
E. Class Holothuroidea:
1. Sea cucumbers (delicacy)
2. Elongated, leather body (the prettier they are, the more toxic they are)
3. No arms, spines absent
4. Microscopic ossicles (plates) embedded in thick, muscular walls
-Ossicles – calcareous material
5. Used in the orient as a food and for medicinal value
-Helps heal wounds more quickly and reduces scarring.
-Largest group- more than all other animals combined
-Includes: spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites, crustaceans, millipedes, centipedes, and insects.
1. Used for food, pollination, dyes, produce silk, honey, beeswax, spread diseases, yield drugs, medicine, etc.
2. Found in all types of environments; parasitize plants and animals.
3. They are carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, symbiotic.
-Most are herbivores
4. Diversity among this phylum has no equal
A. External Features of Arthropods
1. Bilateral symmetry, a metameric body
-Larvae shows all segments
-Tagmata (tagma singular) which are segments fused into functional groups such as head and thorax
-This becomes the cephalothorax
-Occurs during the process of molting
2. Jointed Appendages; new to animals
-Helps them become more successful in adaptation
-Often specialized for walking, swimming, jumping, flying, eating
-Appendages can be modified into antennae, mouth parts, legs, etc., but not wings
3. Exoskeleton: new to animals
-Keeps animals small; larger exoskeletons mean more weight. It would have to be excessively thick for the muscles to work. This leads to lack of mobility.
- Metamorphosis is the term used that encompasses an arthropod’s stages from egg to adult
4. Compound eye- corneal lens at top
-Ommatidia- visual unit
-Rhabdom- light sensitive core
-Surrounding rhabdom are 8 retinal cells
TYPES OF COMPOUND EYES
1. Appositional eyes- results in an inverted image
-Pigment cells; bees
2. Superposition
-Give right side up image
-No pigment cells; moths
3. Simple eye or ocelli
-Distinguishes light from dark
B. Internal Features
-Reduced coelom
-No cilia
-Tubular gut, mouth- anus
1. Nervous system
a. Double chain of unsegmented ganglion
b. Most control is in the ventral ganglia
c. Brain: 3 fused pairs of dorsal ganglia at anterior end
-Act as an inhibitor; will stop a reaction
-Ex: copulation, eating etc.
2. Respiratory system
a. No major respiratory organs
b. Trachea: small cuticle-lined air ducts
-Tracheoles- branches of trachea
*for gas exchange
c. Spiracles- opening to outside- prevents water loss
-Have a valve to open/close
d. In chelicerates (some spiders) have book lungs- leaf like plates, w/ a chamber in which air can be drawn in or out
-Found in aquatic arthropods such as horse shoe crab
3. Circulatory system
a. Open
b. Heart is a longitudinal vessel
4. Excretory system- terrestrial arthropods
a. Malpighian Tubules- between hind and gut
-A way of concentrating waste; helps send nitrogenous waste to hind gut
5. Reproduction
a. Sexes are usually separate
b. Mostly internal fertilization
-Oviparous-eggs released, developed outside female
-Ovoviviparous- eggs developed inside the female
C. Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Arachnida
a. Spiders, ticks, daddy long legs, mites, scorpions, etc.
b. Terrestrial- most are harmless or beneficial
c. 6 pairs of appendages
-1 pair of chelicerae instead of jaws
a. Used for capturing and paralyzing their victims
b. Fanglike or pincers
-1 pair of pedipoles (male spiders use as copulatory organ)
-Many spiders have mating dance-specific movement- and make a noise by vibrating the abdomen
-4 pairs of walking legs
d. Most are carnivores except mites (this will be on the test)
e. Most have external digestion
-Turn solid food into liquid by enzyme
f. Breathe by trachea, book lungs, or both
g. 8 simple eyes used for detecting moving objects
-Eyesight considered poor
-Uses sensory setae to sample environment (hairs on legs)
h. Web-spinning behavior
-Dependant on silk glands which produce a protein secretion- very strong substance
i. Excretory- waste is mostly uric acid
-Dangerous- black widows and brown recluse spiders
-Ticks- blood eating external parasites of mammals, birds, and reptiles throughout the world (so scary!)
- Class Merostomata- horseshoe crab
a. Genus limulus
b. Ancient - 500 million yrs old
c. One pair of chelicera
d. 5 pairs of walking legs
-Last pair have leaf-like plates at tip for digging and locomotion
e. Book gills for gas exchange
f. Covered by carapace- hard plate over cephalothorax
g. Long spine like telson- tail piece
h. Scavenge muddy/sandy substrates for annelids, small mollusks, and other invertebrates
i. Dioecious male and female
D. Subphylum Crustacea
-Crabs, shrimp, lobsters, crayfish, barnacles, pillbugs, waterfleas, etc.
a. Barnacles used to be in the Phylum Echinodermata; they are now part of sessile crustaceans
b. Mainly marines- some freshwater
c. Only arthropods with two pairs of antennae
d. Some have carapace (shield on dorsal side) over the cephalothorax
(lobster crayfish...)
-Swimmerettes (5 pairs) are primarily swimming legs
-First pair used for brooding eggs (female) or copulation (male)
-Uropods-either side of telson, flipper like-used for steering
e. Some have various number of pairs of legs on abdomen and thorax
-Biramous (double branched) appendages have a leg/gill structure with a common root at the body segment
f. Compound eyes
g. Respiration: gas exchange takes place through the gills or cuticle
h. Excretory- have green glands (located in head) instead of malpighian tubules
i. Reproduction: most sexes are separate except barnacles which are hermaphroditic
-Majority of crustaceans produce a larvae called naupilus- ancient form
E. Subphylum Myriapoda
-Millipedes, centipedes
a. Uniramous legs
Class Chilopoda- centipedes
a. Predators; found in moist places; feed on insects
b. Head region then the body consist of numerous segments
c. One pair of legs per segment
-First pair has changed into poison claws (fangs to kill prey)
Class Diplopoda -millipedes
a. Most herbivores- found in decaying vegetation
b. Head region and body with numerous segments
c. 2 pairs of legs per segment
(Really 2 segments fused together)
d. Defense, foul fluid or gas
Subphylum Hexapoda
Class Insecta
1. Largest group of organisms on earth, either number of individuals or number of species
2. Study of insects: entomology
3. Found in all habitats; few aquatic
- Wide distribution due to wings
4. Morphologically more closely related to crustaceans.
A. External Features
-Tagmata found in head, thorax, abdomen
-Cuticle composed of 4 plates called sclerites
1. Head
a. Large pair of compound eyes
b. One pair of antennae
c. Three ocelli (simple eye)
d. Mouth Parts
-Determines how the insect feeds
-Review Figure 12.144, page 242
2. Thorax
a. Three parts- each with a pair of legs
-Prothorax, Mesothorax, Metathorax
b. Wings – 2 pairs
-One pair attached to the mesothorax
-Other pair to metathorax
-If only one pair, attached to the mesothorax
c. Filled with muscles to operate wings (analogous to bird and mammal wings, not homologous)
B. Internal Features:
1. Respiration
a. Trachea extends throughout the body
b. Spiracles
-Located between segments of thorax and abdomen
2. Digestion
a. Takes place in a coiled tube – digestive tract
-Found in midgut- called stomach
3. Excretion
a. Is facilitated by the malpighian tubules
b. Helps the insect with water and electrolyte balance
c. Waste empties into hindgut
4. Sensory Receptors
a. In addition to eyes
b. Sensory hairs – sensitive to touch
c. Taste organs on mouthparts
d. Smell- Located on antennae
e. Hearing – tympanal organs
f. Chemoreceptors help detect pheromones
5. Reproduction
a. Dioecious
b. Fertilization is internal
c. Sperm goes into female at time of copulation
d. Usually only one mate, one time
e. Lay a large number of eggs
f. Show some sexual dimorphism (sexes different sizes, female usually larger than male)
6. Life Histories of Insects
a. Ecdysis (molt) – Goes through 4 to 7 times
b. Metamorphosis – Change from egg to adult form
-Two types of Metamorphosis:
1. Simple: All immature forms look like adult
-These stages are called nymphs
-Think of dragonfly nymphs
2. Complete: Immature form looks different from adult
-These immature forms are called larvae
- Think of the butterfly
c. Start with egg Larvae (wormlike, segmented) Developmental stage, sometimes several, called pupa (molt) Adult
d. Larvae could be: 1st instar larvae, 2nd instar larvae, etc. (stage between molts)
ECHINODERMS AND LESSER DEUTEROSTOMES
Phylum Echinodermata
a. All are marine forms
b. Sea stars (starfish), brittle stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea cucumbers
-Belong to the deuterostome branch of the animal kingdom, and are coelomates. (Only major invertebrates that show an affinity to lower vertebrates)
c. All radially symmetrical as adults, but with a 5 part body plan in most
d. Bilateral as larvae – free swimming
e. Water vascular system: madreporite in most (opening on top)
-How it works, Example: Sea Star:
-Water enters madreporite, goes down tube to stone canal, to ring canal which gives rise to radial canal
-Responsible for movement – forces water into tube feet
-Ampulla – Sac that pushes water into tube foot and blocks it from coming back to radial canal
f. No head or brain
g. Nervous system – Central nerve ring with branches – primitive
h. Endoskeleton is of dermal calcareous ossicles (plates) with spines covered by epidermis.
-Name derived from this feature (Greek = spiny skin)
i. Locomotion is by tube feet or by movement from arms which project from central disc of body
j. Respiration and excretion is handled by skin gills located in between spines
k. Has ability to regenerate lost parts; cut arms off or break in half
l. Reproduction – Some by regeneration
-Most by sexual reproduction
-Most have separate sexes
-Fertilization is external; Larvae free swimming
-Larvae different than trocophore larvae of mollusks
A. Class Crinoidea
1. Sea lilies and feather stars
2. Mouth and anus on upper surfaces of disk (oral side)
3. Filter feeders; mostly sessile (Figures14.18, 14.19)
4. 5 radial arms branch into other arms that support pinnules (feather-like structures)
5. Body Plans:
-Stalks – Attached organism to substrate (sea lilies)
-Claw-like structure- Anchors to substrate (feather stars)
6. Fertilization is external
-Female shelters larvae (brooding)
B. Class Asteroidia
1. True sea stars or starfish (some have more than 5 arms)
-Epidermis has pigment
-These are most familiar to us
-Found shallow to very deep
2. Important marine predators
-Help keep things in balance
3. Mouth is on lower surface
4. Can extrude the stomach through their mouth, killing and partially digesting their prey outside their body
5. Lab: Asterias
C. Class Ophiuroidea:
1. Brittle star
2. Have slender branched arms
-Which are brittle with spines
-Number of spines depends on species
-Arms move from side-to-side – Like rowing a boat
3. Feed on microplankton; many are scavengers and will eat just about anything
4. Lab: Ophiura
D. Class Echinoidea
1. Sea urchins, sand dollars, sea biscuits (page 283, Figure 14.14)
2. No distinct arms; have 5 part body plan
3. Move with tube feet with suckers
-Some have moveable spines
4. Feed on algae or planktonic organisms
5. Lab: Arbacia
E. Class Holothuroidea:
1. Sea cucumbers (delicacy)
2. Elongated, leather body (the prettier they are, the more toxic they are)
3. No arms, spines absent
4. Microscopic ossicles (plates) embedded in thick, muscular walls
-Ossicles – calcareous material
5. Used in the orient as a food and for medicinal value
-Helps heal wounds more quickly and reduces scarring.
Sunday, November 14, 2010
Notes for Test 3
Animal Kingdom:
-Heterotrophic
-Depend directly or indirectly on plants for nutrition
-Multicellular
-Movement
-35 Phyla
-Their form is either:
a) Invertebrate – animals without backbones
b) Vertebrate – animals with backbones
-Most reproduce by sexual reproduction
a)Exception: Parthenogenesis-
-Development of an unfertilized egg into a mature individual (asexual reproduction) common in arthropods (insects).
Animalia is divided into 3 branches; we discuss the two major sub-kingdoms, Parazoa and Eumetazoa.
Parazoa (sub-kingdom 1)
Phylum Porifera:
-Sponges (pore-bearing)
-Bodies consist of many tiny pores and canals that make up the filter-feeding system
-This system accommodates their sessile lives
-Water currents flow through the canal system bringing food, oxygen and eliminating waste.
-Food is taken in by endocytosis
-Process of cellular absorption where cell membrane folds inward to take in the substance bound to its surface.
-The sponge body consists of:
-Cells which are embedded in a gelatinous matrix
-Tiny spicules of calcium carbonate or silica are also part of the matrix
-Some have a “sponge” fiber of keratose substance called spongin
These organisms have
-No definite symmetry
-No tissues or organs
-No nervous system or sense organs
-Many are colonial
-Many are brightly colored
-Larvae are free swimming but the adults are sessile
-5,000 marine species, 150 freshwater
Embryonic layers are not homologous to germ layers (no body cavity) – Porifera belong to the cellular level of organization
Form: 3 Layers
-Choanocytes: cells lining the internal cavity; they are flagellated and resemble Protists
-Mesohyl: Contains:
-Archaeocytes: (amoeboid cells) carry out various functions such as food reserves, digestion aid, carry pigments, reproductive cells, etc.
-Can differentiate to other cell types
-Example: Spicules or spongin for strength
-Epithelial Layer: Outermost layer contains flattened cells called pinacocytes
Function:
-Body openings are many tiny pores called ostia (incoming water) and a few large ones called oscula (water outlet)
-All openings are connected by a canal system
-Choanocytes maintain the water flow
Body Forms/ Canal Systems:
-Asconoid sponges: small, simple form with a tube-shaped body
-Syconoid sponges: tubular body, wall is much thicker and highly folded
-Leuconoid sponges: have most complex structure which allows for increase in body size.
-Most efficient in water circulation.
Reproduction:
-Asexual:
-External bud formation
-Some species have internal budding or gemmules
-Regeneration following fragmentation
Sexual:
-Both male and female sex cells in one individual, but not at the same time
-Sperm released into the water by one individual, then taken into canal system of another individual.
Classification:
Class Calcarea:
-Calcispongiae
-We find all body structures in this class
-Only class with spicules of calcium carbonate fringe around osculum
-Spicules are needle-shaped or 3 or 4 rayed
-All marine
-Mostly shallow waters
-Common in coral reefs of Caribbean
-Example: Sycon (Lab: Grantia)
Class Hexactinellida:
-6-rayed siliceous spicules
-Body cylindrical or funnel-shaped, 7-40 cm tall
-All marine; deep water
-Example: Euplectella (Venus' Flower Basket)
Class Demospongiae
-Leuconoid body structure
-Contains about 80% of all sponges, including the largest and most brightly colored forms
-Siliceous spicules, not 6 rayed
-One family of freshwater sponges has 150 species
-All others marine
-Includes bath sponges (lack spicules)
Class Sclerospongiae:
-Soft body covers a massive basal skeleton of calcium carbonate
-Found in coves, crevices, tunnels associated with coral reefs
-Also called Coralline sponges
Eumetazoa (Sub-kingdom #2)
Evolutionary-wise:
-The advancement of tissues, bilateral symmetry, a body cavity, deuterostome development and segmentation are the causes for differences in the Animal Phyla under the sub-kingdom Eumetazoa
Two Groups: Radial and Bilateral Symmetry
Radially Symmetrical Animals:
-Resemble a form (pie) where several cutting planes produce identical pieces
-There are not right or left sides
-There is a top and bottom (dorsal and ventral surface)
-Suitable for sessile animals (Example: sea anemone)
Body Plan:
-Show distinct tissues but no “true” organs
-Cell Layers:
-Ectoderm: Consists of epidermis, nervous system
-Mesoglea: Gelatinous substance found between the ectoderm and endoderm
-Thick in jellyfish, thin in hydra
-Contains the muscles
-Endoderm: Consists of digestive tissue or gastrodermis
-Extracellular digestion occurs in gastrovascular cavity (gut)
-Intracellular digestion in gastrodermal cells
-Improvement over sponges
-Tentacles: Most radiates have tentacles or extensible projections around the oral end
-Aid in food capture
-Nerve Cells:
-First true nerve cells (protoneurons) occur in radiates
-Arranged as a nerve net, no central nervous system
-The nerve net is never completely lost in high forms
-Sense Organs:
-Appear in radiates
-Include well-developed statocysts (organs of equilibrium)
-Ocelli: photosensitive organs
g) Locomotion:
-In the free moving forms, locomotion is achieved either by muscular contractions (Cnidarians) or ciliary comb plates (Ctenophores).
h) Unique Features:
-Nematocysts in the cnidarians (stinging)
-Colloblasts and ciliary comb plates in the ctenophores (adhesive).
Two Phyla of Radially Symmetrical Animals:
*Phylum Cnidaria:
-Also called coelenterate (sac-like body cavity).
1. Jellyfish, hydroids, sea anemones, and corals.
2. 10,000 species – named from cnidocysts which contain the stinging structures (nematocysts).
3. Widespread in marine habitats, some found at great depths.
4. Few fresh water forms; no terrestrial species.
5. Sessile or slow moving.
6. Efficient predators of organisms that are more complex and swift.
7. Algae may live as mutuals in their tissue; notably in some fresh water hydras, jellyfish, and in reef building corals.
Cnidaria Have Two Different Body Forms:
1. Polyp
-Cylindrical- found attached to a firm substrate
-Mouth parts facing upwards
-Live a solitary lifestyle or colonial
2. Medusa
-Umbrella or bowl-shaped
-Usually free floating
-Mouth points downward (polymorphism)
-Tentacles hang down
-Many have sensory organs on the margin of the bell or umbrella.
-Pigment spot: sensitive to light
-Statocysts: organs of equilibrium
Cnidarian are usually a polyp or medusa or an alternation between the two forms.
Reproduction:
1. Asexual: Polyps bud becoming a polyp or medusa
2. Sexual: Fertilized eggs give rise to planulae (free swimming, multicellular, ciliated larvae) external fertilization.
Starting Now We Have:
-Digestion of food within a gut cavity
-Fragments of food are absorbed by cells along the cavity
-One opening (mouth and anus)
No Respiratory or Excretory Systems
1. No special organs because tissue is so thin.
2. Excretion taken care of by diffusion of nitrogenous wastes (ammonia)
Cnidocytes- cells on end of tentacles and sometimes on the body which contain nematocysts.
-Nematocyst: found within the cnidocytes and are a harpoon-like structure.
Three types of nematocysts:
1. Penetant: harpoon-like structures used to penetrate
2. Glutinant: sticky surfaces used to stick to prey
3. Volvent: lasso-like string fired at prey; wraps itself around cellular projection on the prey.
Classification:
1) Class Hydrozoa (Hydroids)
-Most have polyps and medusa stages
-Most are marine organisms; some bioluminescent.
-Colonial hydroids are found in shallow coastal water attached to mollusk shells, rocks, wharves, and other animals.
-Some are found at great depths.
-Example: Portuguese Man-of-War (Physalia)
-Marine; floating colony; have gas-filled, balloon-like floats
-Example: Hydra (freshwater, no medusa stage)
-Tolerates considerable eutrophication, wide temperature fluctuations, and saline conditions.
-Widespread, though sensitive to heavy metal toxicity.
-Example: Obelia: Marine, colonial hydroid.
2) Class Scyphozoa
-Jellyfish; all marine
1. Dominant stage is medusa (bell shaped)
2. Gelatinous mesoglea much enlarged
3. Example: Aurelia (tentacles are short)
3) Class Cubozoa
-Box Jellyfish
1. Box shaped, tentacles trail from the “corners” of the translucent body
2. Fastest swimmer among jellies
3. The most deadly cnidocytes are found on the box jellyfish's body.
4. Sea Wasp, Chironex fleckeri is claimed to be the most venomous marine animal known.
5. Certain species prevalent along the Florida and Texas coasts.
4) Class Anthozoa
-Sea anemone, hard and soft corals, sea fans, sea pens, etc.
1) Flower animals (Greek, antho = flower)
2) Polyps (no medusa stage)
3) Solitary and colonial
4) Sea anemones have simple, tubular tentacles
5) Lowest sting intensity
6) Sea anemones and hard corals have a hexamerous plan (in six or multiples of six)
7) Hard corals have a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate with many minute depressions that have been formed by the polyps.
8) Sea fans, sea pens and soft corals are octamerous
-Have eight pinnate tentacles arranged around the margin of the oral disc.
3) Phylum Ctenophora
-Comb jellies, sea walnuts, etc.
1. Structurally complex than cnidarians.
2. Transparent and bioluminecent.
3. Spherical or ribbon-like shape
4. Locomotion: Eight comb-like plates of fused ciliar are arranged along sides of animal (largest animal to use ciliar)
5. All are free swimmers
6. Have anal pores (not just one pore like the jellyfish
7. Do not have nematocysts; are harmless to humans
-Capture prey with sticky cells called colloblasts.
Bilateral Symmetry:
Terms:
Dorsal- Top
Ventral- Bottom
Anterior- Toward the head/top.
Posterior- Toward the back/ tail/ feet.
The Three Types of Body Cavities That Evolved With Bilateral Symmetry:
1. Acoelomates: which have no body cavity other than a digestive system.
-Example: Planaria (flatworm)
2. Pseudocoelomates: body cavity located between the mesoderm and endoderm.
-Example: Nematodes (round worm)
3. Coelomates: body cavity is fluid-filled and develops within the mesoderm.
-Example: Mollusks, Insects, Chordates. Have a true coelom.
[Know page 56 Fig 3.2 and page 58 Figs 3.5 and 3.7]
Development Styles:
Protostomes and Deuterostomes: both terms refer to the development of the embryo and pattens of growth surrounding the fate of the blastopore (Page 61, Fig 3.8)
1. In protostomes, the blastopore becomes the animal's mouth (develops first)
2. In deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the animal's anus (develops first), the mouth develops elsewhere.
Body Styles:
Non-segmented to segmented denotes advancement in the body plan by subdividing the body.
Acoelomate Animals:
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
1. Flatworms (Lab: Dugesia, common name planaria)
2. Most are parasitic (tapeworm), some are free-living (planaria)
3. Economically important (tapeworm, etc.)
4. Cilia for moving
5. Simplest animals in which organs occur
6. Most have only one opening to the digestive cavity (cannot feed, digest, and eliminate at the same time).
Phylum Platyhelminthes' Systems:
A. Excretory System:
-Network of 5 tubules with flame cells on the side branches. Main function is to help with water balance (osmoregulation).
1. Flame cell cilia push wastes out exit pores which are located between the epidermal cells.
-Waste removal is a secondary function
2. Most wastes diffuse into the gut and exit through the mouth.
B. Circulatory System:
-Do not have; they have simple diffusion for oxygen and food.
C. Nervous System:
-Some have a nerve net like cnidarians
-Most have a simple central nervous system with longitudinal nerve cords with tiny swellings at the anterior ends of the nerve cord (primitive brain)
-Eyespots are at anterior end
-Inverted pigment cups that are light sensitive (connected with nervous system)
D. Reproductive System (most)
-Most are hermaphroditic (both male and female sex structures in one).
-Many have internal fertilization.
-Asexual (regenerative reproduction) possible.
Three Classes of Flatworms:
A. Class Turbellaria
1. Free-living, soft flattened bodies
2. Ciliated epidermis
3. Locomotion: gliding over a slime tract secreted by marginal adhesive glands on epidermis.
4. Mouth located ventrally – near center of body
5. Example: Dugesia (planaria) is fresh water
-Size: very small, some less than 5mm long, some even smaller than large Protozoans
-Largest species over two feet long.
B. Class Termatoda (flukes)
1. Adults are endoparasitic of vertebrates
2. Lack cilia, eyespots, sensory organs of free-living flatworms (don't need them once they are in the host).
3. Life cycle is indirect- at least one intermediate host that is always a mollusk-type
4. Attach to body of host via suckers, anchors, or hooks.
-Have powerful oral suckers around the mouth
-Most also have a mid-ventral sucker called the acetabulum
-Example: Clonorchis sinensis: Human (Chinese) liver fluke
-Life Cycle: First host snail; second host fish where cercariae burrows under scale; third host human when he/she eats raw fish.
-Treatable but difficult
-Hermaphroditic except scistosomes
-Scistosoma (lab): Dioecious (separate male and female)
-First intermediate host is snail
-Parasite can live up to 48 hours in water
-Parasite enter human through skin
-Tropical and temperate countries, not U.S.
-200 million are affected, 1 million die per year, can be cured
-Spread by urinating or defecating into water used by others.
C. Class Cestoda (Tapeworm):
1. Endoparasitic (in vertebrates)
2. Nonciliated
3. Lack digestive organs- obtains food through the body wall
4. Example: Taenia Saginata (lab)- beef tapeworm
a) Attaches to any part of the intestinal wall in humans with suckers and/or hooks
b) Can be picked up by eating beef that is cooked rare.
c) Can grow to 36 feet in length
-Scolex located at anterior end- includes attachment organs
-Segments are called proglottids and can break off
-Embryos in proglottids can then be ingested by cattle/humans
-Need to remove entire worm, not just segments to kill worm.
Phylum Nemertea:
1. Ribbon or proboscis worm (rare), evolutionarily important.
2. Mostly marine animals
3. Proboscis used for capturing prey
4. Simplest animal with a complete digestive system (like Phylum Nematoda)
-2 separate openings, a mouth and an anus (more advanced than Platyhelminthes,but less successful as a group)
-Many important evolutionary trends start with Phylum Nemertea; eg first circulatory system with blood vessels
(last acoelomate)
Psuedocoelomates:
-The pseudocoelomate phyla have a pseudocoel (a false cavity) rather than a true coelom
-This is the second basic body plan
1. Pseudocoelom acts as a hydrostatic skeleton
-Becomes rigid when filled with fluid
-Allows muscle contraction and therefore more efficient movement.
2. No defined circulatory system
3. Has a complete digestive tract
4. The epidermis in many secretes a non-living cuticle with some specializations like bristle, spines, etc.
5. There is a constant number of cells or nuclei in the individuals of a species, this condition is known as eutely
-Some nematode species, identification is based on eutely
Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms):
1. Found in all different ecological niches- salt and freshwater, on land, from the ice caps to tropical areas.
2. Free living or parasitic
-Found everywhere; plants and animals
-Economically very important
Characteristics of Phylum Nematoda:
1. Body is cylindrical in shape and unsegmented
2. Body covered with flexible, thick, non-living cuticle that molts as they grow.
3. Muscles in body wall run in longitudinal direction only.
a) No circular muscles in body wall (4 bands, 4 epidermal cords)
4. Mouth usually has 16 raised, hairlike sensory organs
-Stylets: piercing organs (near mouth)
5. No flagella or cilia
6. Excretory System: consist of cells that function as glands or canals (no flame cells)
a) The alimentary canal consist of a mouth → muscular pharynx → long muscular intestine → short rectum → terminal anus.
7. Reproduction: Sexual
a) Males reproductive system opens into rectum to form cloaca
b) Females reproductive system opens into separate gonospore
-Example: Necator- Hookworm
a) Humans, pets, etc.
b) Anterior end curved into a hook-like structure
c) Have cutting plates in mouth; cut into intestinal mucosa
d) Sucks blood of host
e) Suck more than they need, may cause severe internal bleeding and anemia
-Ascari- Intestinal roundworm (we dissected this)
-Most common parasite in humans
-Large numbers of worms can cause intestinal blockage
-28% of humans in 3rd world countries
-Enterobius- Pinworms
-Single host can reinfect self or others
-The larvae hatches in the intestine and cycle starts over
-In U.S. 16% adults and 30% children infected
-Trichinella- Disease trichinosis
-Adult worms burrow into mucosa of small intestine
-Female produces living young (this is very important!)
-Juveniles penetrate into blood vessels; carried through the body
-Penetrate skeletal muscle forming a cyst
-Humans usually get this parasite from eating poorly cooked pork
(ALL OF THE ABOVE ARE INTESTINAL PARASITES)
(still in the Phylum Nematoda)
-Filarial Worms:
a) 8 species which infect humans
b) Major causes of several disease in humans
c) 250 million people in tropical climates are infected
d) Wuchereria bancrofti – Lives in the lymphatic system
-Disease symptoms: inflammation/obstruction of the lymphatic system
-Disease is called Elephantiasis (long/repeated exposure)
-Condition marked by excessive connective tissue growth and enormous swelling of affected parts (vector: mosquito)
e) Another filarial worm causes river blindness which is carried by black flies
-Affects 30 million people mostly in tropical areas (Africa, Arabia, Central/South America)
Phylum Rotifera:
1. Rotifers look like a trumpet
2. Name derived from the ciliated crown or corona, which when beating looks like a rotating wheel.
3. Variety of sizes, shapes, and colors.
a) Floaters (globular shaped and sac-like)
b) Creepers and swimmers (elongated, worm-like)
c) Sessile, vase-like
d) Some are colonial
4. Most species are freshwater forms; a few are marine, terrestrial, or parasitic
a) Generally found on the bottom region (benthic zone) of water way.
5. Body is made up of a head, trunk and foot
a) Head bears the corona which surrounds the mouth
b) Trunk contains primitive organs
c) Trunk sometimes ends in a “foot”
d) Toes secrete a sticky material used in attachment
6. Rotifers are dioecious
a) Male unknown in many species and reproduction is entirely parthenogenic.
Phylum Cycliophora (discovered in 1995)
1. Very tiny, as big as a full-stop
2. Live on the mouth-parts of Norwegian lobster (bristles) and other crustaceans, follow lobster's life cycle (molting)
3. Individuals are only a brain and sex organs
Coelomates:
These individuals have:
-Protostomes: Mollusks, annelids, arthropods
-Deuterostomes: Echinoderms, hemichordates, chordates
Phylum Annelida: (Earthworms, marine and freshwater worms, leeches)
-Worldwide distribution: marine, brackish, freshwaters and terrestrials
1. Segmentation or metamerism (also arthropods)
a) Metamerism means the animal is composed of “serially repeated units called segments or metameres”
b) First segmented animals
c) Segmented internally and externally.
A. Body Plan- General:
1. Tube within a tube with the digestive tract suspended within the coelom
-Digestive system is complete and not metamerically arranged.
2. Coelom (body cavity) is divided by septa.
-Septa: are partitions that divide the segments internally, except in leeches.
-Septa = more powerful for burrowing
-Coelomic fluid supplies pressure an functions as a hydrostatic skeleton.
3. Externally, body divided into similar rings or segments arranged in a linear series, marked by circular grooves called annuli.
-Setae: Tiny, chitinous bristles found on each segment.
-Short ones- used during movement to anchor and prevent backward slipping
-Long ones- aid aquatic annelids in swimming
-Often present on fleshy appendages called parapodia
-Absent in leeches
4. Muscles are used to crawl, burrow, swim
B. Nervous System is Centralized
1. Cerebral Ganglion in an anterior segment (brain)
-Separate ganglia (or nerve centers) in each segment
-These are interconnected by nerve cords
-Have sense organs such as taste buds, photoreceptor cells, some have eyes with lenses
C. Respiration:
-Oxygen and CO2 diffuse through body surface.
D. Circulatory System
1. Closed with muscular blood vessels and aortic arches (heats) move blood.
-More complex than previous organisms
E. Excretory System:
1. Nepheridia: (kidney) found in each metamere
2. Have reached differentiation that involves removal of waste from blood as well as from coelom -Collects wastes and transports it out of the body through the coelom by way of excretory tubes.
F. Reproduction:
1. Hermaphroditic or separate sexes
2. May have larva, if present are trochophore type (structure)
-Small, free-swimming, ciliated larvae (1st stage)
3. Some have asexual reproduction via budding
G. Annelids are the most highly organized animals capable of complete regeneration
-Ability greatly varies within a group
Classes: they are classified on the basis of the presence or absence of parapodia, setae, and metameres
Class Polychaeta:
-Commonly known as bristleworms
1. Most primitive of the annelids; largest class, mostly marine
-Size range from less than 1mm to 3 meters in length
2. Extremely important component of marine food webs
3. Most abundant organism in soft marine sediment
4. Many are commensal
-Live in or with other animals; i.e. sponges, shells of mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans
5. Others are parasites or predators
6. Parapodia:
-Use setae on edges of parapodia to anchor/hook to bottom
-Paired, fleshy paddle-like flaps
-Found on most segments
-Used for locomotion (burrowing, swimming, crawling, etc.) and gas exchange (surface area)
7. Separate sexes
-External fertilization usually
8. Have a trochophore larvae like the mollusks.
-Lab: Nereis (the one whose pharynx we tried to pull out) and Arenicola (lugworm)
Class Oligochaeta (Earthworms)
1. Most are terrestrial; some freshwater (What happens when it rains? Burrows flood and they all come to the surface)
2. Many segments- tropical forms have up to 250 segments
-Mouth on first segment; anus on the last
3. Suck in organic and other material by a contracting pharynx
4. Digestive tract- (gizzard) part of
-grinds up organic material
-Leave casting (earthworm poop), rich soil, aerate soil
5. No eyes
-Have light and touch sensitive organs
6. No parapodia and fewer setae than polychaetes
7. No distinct head region
8. Hermaphroditic with cross-fertilization
-Nose to toes ventrally for sperm exchange
-Stick together via mucus from clitellum (thick band on earthworm's body)
-After mating, clitellum produces a sac which goes down worm
-Called a cocoon; located on the outside of the worm. Picks up sperm and egg along the way.
-Eggs are fertilized in the cocoon
-The cocoon is dropped off in the soil
-Lab: Lumbricus (earthworm)
Class Hirudinea (leeches)
1. Flattened dorso-ventrally, like flatworms
2. Hermaphroditic
-Have clitellum only during breeding season
3. Have a reduced coelom and continuous throughout the body
-No individual segments like the other 2 classes
4. Have suckers at one or both ends
-Sometimes used for locomotion
5. No parapodia or setae
6. Most are predators or scavengers and some are external parasites
7. Example: Blood-sucking leech: Hirudo medicinalis
-Have mouth with chitinous jaws and they secrete an anticoagulant called hirudin.
Phylum Mollusca
-Chitons, snails, slugs, nudibranches, clams, mussels, scallops, oysters, squid, octopi, nautiluses, etc.
1. Size: The group ranges from microscopic (bivalve seed shells), to a giant squid and giant clam.
2. New characteristics: fleshy mantle which, in most cases, secretes a shell, the radula, and a muscular foot.
3. Movements: hardly moving (bivalves; sessile) to very fast (squid)
4. Mode of feeding: includes grazers, predators, and suspension feeders
5. Locations: great range of habitats from the tropics to the polar seas; from shorelines to ocean depths
-Originated in the sea
-Bivalves and gastropods in brackish and freshwater habitats
-Only snails and slugs (gastropods) invaded land
-Require humidity, shelter and calcium in the soil to make shell
They Phylum Mollusca is an important food source to many other species as well as for decorative objects such as pearl buttons and jewelry.
A. General Body Plan
1. Head at anterior end of body
2. Highly developed direct eye of higher mollusks (from skin) is compared to the indirect eye of the vertebrates (brain eyes)
3. Visceral mass- where the digestive, excretory, and reproductive organs are found.
4. Foot- Muscular- used for locomotion, attachemtn, or capturing of food
5. Dorsal body wall forms two folds called the mantle, inside of which isth e mantel cavity.
-Mantle cavity- holds gills and lungs = respiration
-Also secretes the sell-shell absent in some
-Protective shell has 3 layers:
a) Outer- horny layer rich in protein
b) Middle- calcium carbonate crystals
c) Inner- pearly layer
-Found in clams and oysters = pearls (from nacre)
6. Radula: rasping, tongue-like organ used to scrape food off of substrate (not bivalves- they are suspension feeders)
B. Respiration; Gas Exchange:
-Occurs not only through the body surface as in lower invertebrates, but also by specialized respiratory organs in the form of gills or lungs
C. Circulatory System:
1. Open circulatory system
-Coelom is a small area surrounding the heart
2. In most cephalopods the circulatory system is closed (octopus, squid) more efficient than previous organisms.
-Closed circulatory system allows for larger size: cephalopods the largest invertebrates
D. Excretory System
1. Consists of 1 or 2 tubular structures called Metanephridia: removes wastes
E. Reproductive System:
1. Most are dioecious, some hermaphroditic
2. Trochophores: Free-swimming larvae, first stage
-Propelled by cilia which are found around the center of the body
3. Veligers: second free-swimming stage after trochophores.
Classes of Mollusks:
-7 Classes, we will look at 4
A. Class Polyplacophora: Chitons
1. Primitive marine mollusks found on rocks and seaweed in the intertidal zone
2. All have 8 shell plates, generally oval in outline and a flattened body
3. The shell plates consist of articulation calcareous valves (roly poly)
4. Creeping foot; a primitive feature in mollusks
5. Trochophore larva is present, no veliger larva
(The annelid has ancestral characteristics)
B. Class Gastropoda: (Belly Foot: Snails, conchs, slugs, etc.)
1. Largest, most diverse group of mollusks
-Make up 70% of all mollusks; are found in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats
2. Visceral mass (body) is asymmetrical with spiral shell serving as a retreat rather than a shield.
3. Muscular foot used for “creeping” locomotion, modified for swimming or burrowing
4. Operculum: a horny plate that seals the opening
5. Tentacles and eyes on head (1 or 2). Longer ones have eyes on end
6. Radula: tongue-like organ
7. Feeding habits: graze, browse, and feed on plankton, scavengers, detritivores, and carnivores
8. Important in food chains and serve as pollution/ acid rain indicators.
9. Intermediate hosts for many important parasites.
C. Class Bivalvia: Clams, scallops, mussels, oysters
1. Mostly marine, freshwater also
2. Two shells, hinged together dorsally
3. Large, muscular wedge-shaped foot for creeping, burrowing, cleaning
4. Adductor muscles-draws shells together
5. Incurrent and excurrent siphons for filtering water
6. No distinct head
7. No radula (radula is a primitive feature)
8. Most are sessile suspension feeders
9. Important economically for food and for saltwater pearls.
D. Class Cephalopoda (means head-foot: octopus, squid, nautilus)
1. Marine predators- swift swimmers
2. Characterized by a completely emerged head and foot
-Foot has evolved into a series of tentacles
-Adhesive structures, suction cups, hooks
-Squid = 10 tentacles; Octopi = 8 tentacles; Nautilus = 60-80 tentacles
3. Horny, beak-like pair of jaws
4. Radula present
5. Nervous system- highly developed with great nerve fibers and a brain
6. Eyes- are very elaborate and retina is similar to vertebrates
7. Most intelligent invertebrates
8. Closed circulatory system
9. No external shell except for few species of the nautilus
-Squid, cuttlefish = pen, cuttle-bone
10. Some have a dark fluid (melanin) in special sacs used for protection.
11. Movement- have directional jet propulsion
-By means of water movement through their modified mantel cavity
12. Reproduction
-Dioecious
-Sperm stored in spermatophores
-No larval stage; development is direct
13. Color changes
-All except nautilus can change color and patterns due to chromatophore cells.
-Response to danger or emotion (hormonal control)
14. Economic Importance
-Food, shells for decoration, cuttlefish bone calcium source for pet birds.
-Heterotrophic
-Depend directly or indirectly on plants for nutrition
-Multicellular
-Movement
-35 Phyla
-Their form is either:
a) Invertebrate – animals without backbones
b) Vertebrate – animals with backbones
-Most reproduce by sexual reproduction
a)Exception: Parthenogenesis-
-Development of an unfertilized egg into a mature individual (asexual reproduction) common in arthropods (insects).
Animalia is divided into 3 branches; we discuss the two major sub-kingdoms, Parazoa and Eumetazoa.
Parazoa (sub-kingdom 1)
Phylum Porifera:
-Sponges (pore-bearing)
-Bodies consist of many tiny pores and canals that make up the filter-feeding system
-This system accommodates their sessile lives
-Water currents flow through the canal system bringing food, oxygen and eliminating waste.
-Food is taken in by endocytosis
-Process of cellular absorption where cell membrane folds inward to take in the substance bound to its surface.
-The sponge body consists of:
-Cells which are embedded in a gelatinous matrix
-Tiny spicules of calcium carbonate or silica are also part of the matrix
-Some have a “sponge” fiber of keratose substance called spongin
These organisms have
-No definite symmetry
-No tissues or organs
-No nervous system or sense organs
-Many are colonial
-Many are brightly colored
-Larvae are free swimming but the adults are sessile
-5,000 marine species, 150 freshwater
Embryonic layers are not homologous to germ layers (no body cavity) – Porifera belong to the cellular level of organization
Form: 3 Layers
-Choanocytes: cells lining the internal cavity; they are flagellated and resemble Protists
-Mesohyl: Contains:
-Archaeocytes: (amoeboid cells) carry out various functions such as food reserves, digestion aid, carry pigments, reproductive cells, etc.
-Can differentiate to other cell types
-Example: Spicules or spongin for strength
-Epithelial Layer: Outermost layer contains flattened cells called pinacocytes
Function:
-Body openings are many tiny pores called ostia (incoming water) and a few large ones called oscula (water outlet)
-All openings are connected by a canal system
-Choanocytes maintain the water flow
Body Forms/ Canal Systems:
-Asconoid sponges: small, simple form with a tube-shaped body
-Syconoid sponges: tubular body, wall is much thicker and highly folded
-Leuconoid sponges: have most complex structure which allows for increase in body size.
-Most efficient in water circulation.
Reproduction:
-Asexual:
-External bud formation
-Some species have internal budding or gemmules
-Regeneration following fragmentation
Sexual:
-Both male and female sex cells in one individual, but not at the same time
-Sperm released into the water by one individual, then taken into canal system of another individual.
Classification:
Class Calcarea:
-Calcispongiae
-We find all body structures in this class
-Only class with spicules of calcium carbonate fringe around osculum
-Spicules are needle-shaped or 3 or 4 rayed
-All marine
-Mostly shallow waters
-Common in coral reefs of Caribbean
-Example: Sycon (Lab: Grantia)
Class Hexactinellida:
-6-rayed siliceous spicules
-Body cylindrical or funnel-shaped, 7-40 cm tall
-All marine; deep water
-Example: Euplectella (Venus' Flower Basket)
Class Demospongiae
-Leuconoid body structure
-Contains about 80% of all sponges, including the largest and most brightly colored forms
-Siliceous spicules, not 6 rayed
-One family of freshwater sponges has 150 species
-All others marine
-Includes bath sponges (lack spicules)
Class Sclerospongiae:
-Soft body covers a massive basal skeleton of calcium carbonate
-Found in coves, crevices, tunnels associated with coral reefs
-Also called Coralline sponges
Eumetazoa (Sub-kingdom #2)
Evolutionary-wise:
-The advancement of tissues, bilateral symmetry, a body cavity, deuterostome development and segmentation are the causes for differences in the Animal Phyla under the sub-kingdom Eumetazoa
Two Groups: Radial and Bilateral Symmetry
Radially Symmetrical Animals:
-Resemble a form (pie) where several cutting planes produce identical pieces
-There are not right or left sides
-There is a top and bottom (dorsal and ventral surface)
-Suitable for sessile animals (Example: sea anemone)
Body Plan:
-Show distinct tissues but no “true” organs
-Cell Layers:
-Ectoderm: Consists of epidermis, nervous system
-Mesoglea: Gelatinous substance found between the ectoderm and endoderm
-Thick in jellyfish, thin in hydra
-Contains the muscles
-Endoderm: Consists of digestive tissue or gastrodermis
-Extracellular digestion occurs in gastrovascular cavity (gut)
-Intracellular digestion in gastrodermal cells
-Improvement over sponges
-Tentacles: Most radiates have tentacles or extensible projections around the oral end
-Aid in food capture
-Nerve Cells:
-First true nerve cells (protoneurons) occur in radiates
-Arranged as a nerve net, no central nervous system
-The nerve net is never completely lost in high forms
-Sense Organs:
-Appear in radiates
-Include well-developed statocysts (organs of equilibrium)
-Ocelli: photosensitive organs
g) Locomotion:
-In the free moving forms, locomotion is achieved either by muscular contractions (Cnidarians) or ciliary comb plates (Ctenophores).
h) Unique Features:
-Nematocysts in the cnidarians (stinging)
-Colloblasts and ciliary comb plates in the ctenophores (adhesive).
Two Phyla of Radially Symmetrical Animals:
*Phylum Cnidaria:
-Also called coelenterate (sac-like body cavity).
1. Jellyfish, hydroids, sea anemones, and corals.
2. 10,000 species – named from cnidocysts which contain the stinging structures (nematocysts).
3. Widespread in marine habitats, some found at great depths.
4. Few fresh water forms; no terrestrial species.
5. Sessile or slow moving.
6. Efficient predators of organisms that are more complex and swift.
7. Algae may live as mutuals in their tissue; notably in some fresh water hydras, jellyfish, and in reef building corals.
Cnidaria Have Two Different Body Forms:
1. Polyp
-Cylindrical- found attached to a firm substrate
-Mouth parts facing upwards
-Live a solitary lifestyle or colonial
2. Medusa
-Umbrella or bowl-shaped
-Usually free floating
-Mouth points downward (polymorphism)
-Tentacles hang down
-Many have sensory organs on the margin of the bell or umbrella.
-Pigment spot: sensitive to light
-Statocysts: organs of equilibrium
Cnidarian are usually a polyp or medusa or an alternation between the two forms.
Reproduction:
1. Asexual: Polyps bud becoming a polyp or medusa
2. Sexual: Fertilized eggs give rise to planulae (free swimming, multicellular, ciliated larvae) external fertilization.
Starting Now We Have:
-Digestion of food within a gut cavity
-Fragments of food are absorbed by cells along the cavity
-One opening (mouth and anus)
No Respiratory or Excretory Systems
1. No special organs because tissue is so thin.
2. Excretion taken care of by diffusion of nitrogenous wastes (ammonia)
Cnidocytes- cells on end of tentacles and sometimes on the body which contain nematocysts.
-Nematocyst: found within the cnidocytes and are a harpoon-like structure.
Three types of nematocysts:
1. Penetant: harpoon-like structures used to penetrate
2. Glutinant: sticky surfaces used to stick to prey
3. Volvent: lasso-like string fired at prey; wraps itself around cellular projection on the prey.
Classification:
1) Class Hydrozoa (Hydroids)
-Most have polyps and medusa stages
-Most are marine organisms; some bioluminescent.
-Colonial hydroids are found in shallow coastal water attached to mollusk shells, rocks, wharves, and other animals.
-Some are found at great depths.
-Example: Portuguese Man-of-War (Physalia)
-Marine; floating colony; have gas-filled, balloon-like floats
-Example: Hydra (freshwater, no medusa stage)
-Tolerates considerable eutrophication, wide temperature fluctuations, and saline conditions.
-Widespread, though sensitive to heavy metal toxicity.
-Example: Obelia: Marine, colonial hydroid.
2) Class Scyphozoa
-Jellyfish; all marine
1. Dominant stage is medusa (bell shaped)
2. Gelatinous mesoglea much enlarged
3. Example: Aurelia (tentacles are short)
3) Class Cubozoa
-Box Jellyfish
1. Box shaped, tentacles trail from the “corners” of the translucent body
2. Fastest swimmer among jellies
3. The most deadly cnidocytes are found on the box jellyfish's body.
4. Sea Wasp, Chironex fleckeri is claimed to be the most venomous marine animal known.
5. Certain species prevalent along the Florida and Texas coasts.
4) Class Anthozoa
-Sea anemone, hard and soft corals, sea fans, sea pens, etc.
1) Flower animals (Greek, antho = flower)
2) Polyps (no medusa stage)
3) Solitary and colonial
4) Sea anemones have simple, tubular tentacles
5) Lowest sting intensity
6) Sea anemones and hard corals have a hexamerous plan (in six or multiples of six)
7) Hard corals have a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate with many minute depressions that have been formed by the polyps.
8) Sea fans, sea pens and soft corals are octamerous
-Have eight pinnate tentacles arranged around the margin of the oral disc.
3) Phylum Ctenophora
-Comb jellies, sea walnuts, etc.
1. Structurally complex than cnidarians.
2. Transparent and bioluminecent.
3. Spherical or ribbon-like shape
4. Locomotion: Eight comb-like plates of fused ciliar are arranged along sides of animal (largest animal to use ciliar)
5. All are free swimmers
6. Have anal pores (not just one pore like the jellyfish
7. Do not have nematocysts; are harmless to humans
-Capture prey with sticky cells called colloblasts.
Bilateral Symmetry:
Terms:
Dorsal- Top
Ventral- Bottom
Anterior- Toward the head/top.
Posterior- Toward the back/ tail/ feet.
The Three Types of Body Cavities That Evolved With Bilateral Symmetry:
1. Acoelomates: which have no body cavity other than a digestive system.
-Example: Planaria (flatworm)
2. Pseudocoelomates: body cavity located between the mesoderm and endoderm.
-Example: Nematodes (round worm)
3. Coelomates: body cavity is fluid-filled and develops within the mesoderm.
-Example: Mollusks, Insects, Chordates. Have a true coelom.
[Know page 56 Fig 3.2 and page 58 Figs 3.5 and 3.7]
Development Styles:
Protostomes and Deuterostomes: both terms refer to the development of the embryo and pattens of growth surrounding the fate of the blastopore (Page 61, Fig 3.8)
1. In protostomes, the blastopore becomes the animal's mouth (develops first)
2. In deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the animal's anus (develops first), the mouth develops elsewhere.
Body Styles:
Non-segmented to segmented denotes advancement in the body plan by subdividing the body.
Acoelomate Animals:
Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
1. Flatworms (Lab: Dugesia, common name planaria)
2. Most are parasitic (tapeworm), some are free-living (planaria)
3. Economically important (tapeworm, etc.)
4. Cilia for moving
5. Simplest animals in which organs occur
6. Most have only one opening to the digestive cavity (cannot feed, digest, and eliminate at the same time).
Phylum Platyhelminthes' Systems:
A. Excretory System:
-Network of 5 tubules with flame cells on the side branches. Main function is to help with water balance (osmoregulation).
1. Flame cell cilia push wastes out exit pores which are located between the epidermal cells.
-Waste removal is a secondary function
2. Most wastes diffuse into the gut and exit through the mouth.
B. Circulatory System:
-Do not have; they have simple diffusion for oxygen and food.
C. Nervous System:
-Some have a nerve net like cnidarians
-Most have a simple central nervous system with longitudinal nerve cords with tiny swellings at the anterior ends of the nerve cord (primitive brain)
-Eyespots are at anterior end
-Inverted pigment cups that are light sensitive (connected with nervous system)
D. Reproductive System (most)
-Most are hermaphroditic (both male and female sex structures in one).
-Many have internal fertilization.
-Asexual (regenerative reproduction) possible.
Three Classes of Flatworms:
A. Class Turbellaria
1. Free-living, soft flattened bodies
2. Ciliated epidermis
3. Locomotion: gliding over a slime tract secreted by marginal adhesive glands on epidermis.
4. Mouth located ventrally – near center of body
5. Example: Dugesia (planaria) is fresh water
-Size: very small, some less than 5mm long, some even smaller than large Protozoans
-Largest species over two feet long.
B. Class Termatoda (flukes)
1. Adults are endoparasitic of vertebrates
2. Lack cilia, eyespots, sensory organs of free-living flatworms (don't need them once they are in the host).
3. Life cycle is indirect- at least one intermediate host that is always a mollusk-type
4. Attach to body of host via suckers, anchors, or hooks.
-Have powerful oral suckers around the mouth
-Most also have a mid-ventral sucker called the acetabulum
-Example: Clonorchis sinensis: Human (Chinese) liver fluke
-Life Cycle: First host snail; second host fish where cercariae burrows under scale; third host human when he/she eats raw fish.
-Treatable but difficult
-Hermaphroditic except scistosomes
-Scistosoma (lab): Dioecious (separate male and female)
-First intermediate host is snail
-Parasite can live up to 48 hours in water
-Parasite enter human through skin
-Tropical and temperate countries, not U.S.
-200 million are affected, 1 million die per year, can be cured
-Spread by urinating or defecating into water used by others.
C. Class Cestoda (Tapeworm):
1. Endoparasitic (in vertebrates)
2. Nonciliated
3. Lack digestive organs- obtains food through the body wall
4. Example: Taenia Saginata (lab)- beef tapeworm
a) Attaches to any part of the intestinal wall in humans with suckers and/or hooks
b) Can be picked up by eating beef that is cooked rare.
c) Can grow to 36 feet in length
-Scolex located at anterior end- includes attachment organs
-Segments are called proglottids and can break off
-Embryos in proglottids can then be ingested by cattle/humans
-Need to remove entire worm, not just segments to kill worm.
Phylum Nemertea:
1. Ribbon or proboscis worm (rare), evolutionarily important.
2. Mostly marine animals
3. Proboscis used for capturing prey
4. Simplest animal with a complete digestive system (like Phylum Nematoda)
-2 separate openings, a mouth and an anus (more advanced than Platyhelminthes,but less successful as a group)
-Many important evolutionary trends start with Phylum Nemertea; eg first circulatory system with blood vessels
(last acoelomate)
Psuedocoelomates:
-The pseudocoelomate phyla have a pseudocoel (a false cavity) rather than a true coelom
-This is the second basic body plan
1. Pseudocoelom acts as a hydrostatic skeleton
-Becomes rigid when filled with fluid
-Allows muscle contraction and therefore more efficient movement.
2. No defined circulatory system
3. Has a complete digestive tract
4. The epidermis in many secretes a non-living cuticle with some specializations like bristle, spines, etc.
5. There is a constant number of cells or nuclei in the individuals of a species, this condition is known as eutely
-Some nematode species, identification is based on eutely
Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms):
1. Found in all different ecological niches- salt and freshwater, on land, from the ice caps to tropical areas.
2. Free living or parasitic
-Found everywhere; plants and animals
-Economically very important
Characteristics of Phylum Nematoda:
1. Body is cylindrical in shape and unsegmented
2. Body covered with flexible, thick, non-living cuticle that molts as they grow.
3. Muscles in body wall run in longitudinal direction only.
a) No circular muscles in body wall (4 bands, 4 epidermal cords)
4. Mouth usually has 16 raised, hairlike sensory organs
-Stylets: piercing organs (near mouth)
5. No flagella or cilia
6. Excretory System: consist of cells that function as glands or canals (no flame cells)
a) The alimentary canal consist of a mouth → muscular pharynx → long muscular intestine → short rectum → terminal anus.
7. Reproduction: Sexual
a) Males reproductive system opens into rectum to form cloaca
b) Females reproductive system opens into separate gonospore
-Example: Necator- Hookworm
a) Humans, pets, etc.
b) Anterior end curved into a hook-like structure
c) Have cutting plates in mouth; cut into intestinal mucosa
d) Sucks blood of host
e) Suck more than they need, may cause severe internal bleeding and anemia
-Ascari- Intestinal roundworm (we dissected this)
-Most common parasite in humans
-Large numbers of worms can cause intestinal blockage
-28% of humans in 3rd world countries
-Enterobius- Pinworms
-Single host can reinfect self or others
-The larvae hatches in the intestine and cycle starts over
-In U.S. 16% adults and 30% children infected
-Trichinella- Disease trichinosis
-Adult worms burrow into mucosa of small intestine
-Female produces living young (this is very important!)
-Juveniles penetrate into blood vessels; carried through the body
-Penetrate skeletal muscle forming a cyst
-Humans usually get this parasite from eating poorly cooked pork
(ALL OF THE ABOVE ARE INTESTINAL PARASITES)
(still in the Phylum Nematoda)
-Filarial Worms:
a) 8 species which infect humans
b) Major causes of several disease in humans
c) 250 million people in tropical climates are infected
d) Wuchereria bancrofti – Lives in the lymphatic system
-Disease symptoms: inflammation/obstruction of the lymphatic system
-Disease is called Elephantiasis (long/repeated exposure)
-Condition marked by excessive connective tissue growth and enormous swelling of affected parts (vector: mosquito)
e) Another filarial worm causes river blindness which is carried by black flies
-Affects 30 million people mostly in tropical areas (Africa, Arabia, Central/South America)
Phylum Rotifera:
1. Rotifers look like a trumpet
2. Name derived from the ciliated crown or corona, which when beating looks like a rotating wheel.
3. Variety of sizes, shapes, and colors.
a) Floaters (globular shaped and sac-like)
b) Creepers and swimmers (elongated, worm-like)
c) Sessile, vase-like
d) Some are colonial
4. Most species are freshwater forms; a few are marine, terrestrial, or parasitic
a) Generally found on the bottom region (benthic zone) of water way.
5. Body is made up of a head, trunk and foot
a) Head bears the corona which surrounds the mouth
b) Trunk contains primitive organs
c) Trunk sometimes ends in a “foot”
d) Toes secrete a sticky material used in attachment
6. Rotifers are dioecious
a) Male unknown in many species and reproduction is entirely parthenogenic.
Phylum Cycliophora (discovered in 1995)
1. Very tiny, as big as a full-stop
2. Live on the mouth-parts of Norwegian lobster (bristles) and other crustaceans, follow lobster's life cycle (molting)
3. Individuals are only a brain and sex organs
Coelomates:
These individuals have:
-Protostomes: Mollusks, annelids, arthropods
-Deuterostomes: Echinoderms, hemichordates, chordates
Phylum Annelida: (Earthworms, marine and freshwater worms, leeches)
-Worldwide distribution: marine, brackish, freshwaters and terrestrials
1. Segmentation or metamerism (also arthropods)
a) Metamerism means the animal is composed of “serially repeated units called segments or metameres”
b) First segmented animals
c) Segmented internally and externally.
A. Body Plan- General:
1. Tube within a tube with the digestive tract suspended within the coelom
-Digestive system is complete and not metamerically arranged.
2. Coelom (body cavity) is divided by septa.
-Septa: are partitions that divide the segments internally, except in leeches.
-Septa = more powerful for burrowing
-Coelomic fluid supplies pressure an functions as a hydrostatic skeleton.
3. Externally, body divided into similar rings or segments arranged in a linear series, marked by circular grooves called annuli.
-Setae: Tiny, chitinous bristles found on each segment.
-Short ones- used during movement to anchor and prevent backward slipping
-Long ones- aid aquatic annelids in swimming
-Often present on fleshy appendages called parapodia
-Absent in leeches
4. Muscles are used to crawl, burrow, swim
B. Nervous System is Centralized
1. Cerebral Ganglion in an anterior segment (brain)
-Separate ganglia (or nerve centers) in each segment
-These are interconnected by nerve cords
-Have sense organs such as taste buds, photoreceptor cells, some have eyes with lenses
C. Respiration:
-Oxygen and CO2 diffuse through body surface.
D. Circulatory System
1. Closed with muscular blood vessels and aortic arches (heats) move blood.
-More complex than previous organisms
E. Excretory System:
1. Nepheridia: (kidney) found in each metamere
2. Have reached differentiation that involves removal of waste from blood as well as from coelom -Collects wastes and transports it out of the body through the coelom by way of excretory tubes.
F. Reproduction:
1. Hermaphroditic or separate sexes
2. May have larva, if present are trochophore type (structure)
-Small, free-swimming, ciliated larvae (1st stage)
3. Some have asexual reproduction via budding
G. Annelids are the most highly organized animals capable of complete regeneration
-Ability greatly varies within a group
Classes: they are classified on the basis of the presence or absence of parapodia, setae, and metameres
Class Polychaeta:
-Commonly known as bristleworms
1. Most primitive of the annelids; largest class, mostly marine
-Size range from less than 1mm to 3 meters in length
2. Extremely important component of marine food webs
3. Most abundant organism in soft marine sediment
4. Many are commensal
-Live in or with other animals; i.e. sponges, shells of mollusks, echinoderms, crustaceans
5. Others are parasites or predators
6. Parapodia:
-Use setae on edges of parapodia to anchor/hook to bottom
-Paired, fleshy paddle-like flaps
-Found on most segments
-Used for locomotion (burrowing, swimming, crawling, etc.) and gas exchange (surface area)
7. Separate sexes
-External fertilization usually
8. Have a trochophore larvae like the mollusks.
-Lab: Nereis (the one whose pharynx we tried to pull out) and Arenicola (lugworm)
Class Oligochaeta (Earthworms)
1. Most are terrestrial; some freshwater (What happens when it rains? Burrows flood and they all come to the surface)
2. Many segments- tropical forms have up to 250 segments
-Mouth on first segment; anus on the last
3. Suck in organic and other material by a contracting pharynx
4. Digestive tract- (gizzard) part of
-grinds up organic material
-Leave casting (earthworm poop), rich soil, aerate soil
5. No eyes
-Have light and touch sensitive organs
6. No parapodia and fewer setae than polychaetes
7. No distinct head region
8. Hermaphroditic with cross-fertilization
-Nose to toes ventrally for sperm exchange
-Stick together via mucus from clitellum (thick band on earthworm's body)
-After mating, clitellum produces a sac which goes down worm
-Called a cocoon; located on the outside of the worm. Picks up sperm and egg along the way.
-Eggs are fertilized in the cocoon
-The cocoon is dropped off in the soil
-Lab: Lumbricus (earthworm)
Class Hirudinea (leeches)
1. Flattened dorso-ventrally, like flatworms
2. Hermaphroditic
-Have clitellum only during breeding season
3. Have a reduced coelom and continuous throughout the body
-No individual segments like the other 2 classes
4. Have suckers at one or both ends
-Sometimes used for locomotion
5. No parapodia or setae
6. Most are predators or scavengers and some are external parasites
7. Example: Blood-sucking leech: Hirudo medicinalis
-Have mouth with chitinous jaws and they secrete an anticoagulant called hirudin.
Phylum Mollusca
-Chitons, snails, slugs, nudibranches, clams, mussels, scallops, oysters, squid, octopi, nautiluses, etc.
1. Size: The group ranges from microscopic (bivalve seed shells), to a giant squid and giant clam.
2. New characteristics: fleshy mantle which, in most cases, secretes a shell, the radula, and a muscular foot.
3. Movements: hardly moving (bivalves; sessile) to very fast (squid)
4. Mode of feeding: includes grazers, predators, and suspension feeders
5. Locations: great range of habitats from the tropics to the polar seas; from shorelines to ocean depths
-Originated in the sea
-Bivalves and gastropods in brackish and freshwater habitats
-Only snails and slugs (gastropods) invaded land
-Require humidity, shelter and calcium in the soil to make shell
They Phylum Mollusca is an important food source to many other species as well as for decorative objects such as pearl buttons and jewelry.
A. General Body Plan
1. Head at anterior end of body
2. Highly developed direct eye of higher mollusks (from skin) is compared to the indirect eye of the vertebrates (brain eyes)
3. Visceral mass- where the digestive, excretory, and reproductive organs are found.
4. Foot- Muscular- used for locomotion, attachemtn, or capturing of food
5. Dorsal body wall forms two folds called the mantle, inside of which isth e mantel cavity.
-Mantle cavity- holds gills and lungs = respiration
-Also secretes the sell-shell absent in some
-Protective shell has 3 layers:
a) Outer- horny layer rich in protein
b) Middle- calcium carbonate crystals
c) Inner- pearly layer
-Found in clams and oysters = pearls (from nacre)
6. Radula: rasping, tongue-like organ used to scrape food off of substrate (not bivalves- they are suspension feeders)
B. Respiration; Gas Exchange:
-Occurs not only through the body surface as in lower invertebrates, but also by specialized respiratory organs in the form of gills or lungs
C. Circulatory System:
1. Open circulatory system
-Coelom is a small area surrounding the heart
2. In most cephalopods the circulatory system is closed (octopus, squid) more efficient than previous organisms.
-Closed circulatory system allows for larger size: cephalopods the largest invertebrates
D. Excretory System
1. Consists of 1 or 2 tubular structures called Metanephridia: removes wastes
E. Reproductive System:
1. Most are dioecious, some hermaphroditic
2. Trochophores: Free-swimming larvae, first stage
-Propelled by cilia which are found around the center of the body
3. Veligers: second free-swimming stage after trochophores.
Classes of Mollusks:
-7 Classes, we will look at 4
A. Class Polyplacophora: Chitons
1. Primitive marine mollusks found on rocks and seaweed in the intertidal zone
2. All have 8 shell plates, generally oval in outline and a flattened body
3. The shell plates consist of articulation calcareous valves (roly poly)
4. Creeping foot; a primitive feature in mollusks
5. Trochophore larva is present, no veliger larva
(The annelid has ancestral characteristics)
B. Class Gastropoda: (Belly Foot: Snails, conchs, slugs, etc.)
1. Largest, most diverse group of mollusks
-Make up 70% of all mollusks; are found in marine, freshwater and terrestrial habitats
2. Visceral mass (body) is asymmetrical with spiral shell serving as a retreat rather than a shield.
3. Muscular foot used for “creeping” locomotion, modified for swimming or burrowing
4. Operculum: a horny plate that seals the opening
5. Tentacles and eyes on head (1 or 2). Longer ones have eyes on end
6. Radula: tongue-like organ
7. Feeding habits: graze, browse, and feed on plankton, scavengers, detritivores, and carnivores
8. Important in food chains and serve as pollution/ acid rain indicators.
9. Intermediate hosts for many important parasites.
C. Class Bivalvia: Clams, scallops, mussels, oysters
1. Mostly marine, freshwater also
2. Two shells, hinged together dorsally
3. Large, muscular wedge-shaped foot for creeping, burrowing, cleaning
4. Adductor muscles-draws shells together
5. Incurrent and excurrent siphons for filtering water
6. No distinct head
7. No radula (radula is a primitive feature)
8. Most are sessile suspension feeders
9. Important economically for food and for saltwater pearls.
D. Class Cephalopoda (means head-foot: octopus, squid, nautilus)
1. Marine predators- swift swimmers
2. Characterized by a completely emerged head and foot
-Foot has evolved into a series of tentacles
-Adhesive structures, suction cups, hooks
-Squid = 10 tentacles; Octopi = 8 tentacles; Nautilus = 60-80 tentacles
3. Horny, beak-like pair of jaws
4. Radula present
5. Nervous system- highly developed with great nerve fibers and a brain
6. Eyes- are very elaborate and retina is similar to vertebrates
7. Most intelligent invertebrates
8. Closed circulatory system
9. No external shell except for few species of the nautilus
-Squid, cuttlefish = pen, cuttle-bone
10. Some have a dark fluid (melanin) in special sacs used for protection.
11. Movement- have directional jet propulsion
-By means of water movement through their modified mantel cavity
12. Reproduction
-Dioecious
-Sperm stored in spermatophores
-No larval stage; development is direct
13. Color changes
-All except nautilus can change color and patterns due to chromatophore cells.
-Response to danger or emotion (hormonal control)
14. Economic Importance
-Food, shells for decoration, cuttlefish bone calcium source for pet birds.
Monday, October 4, 2010
Seedless-Non Vascular Plants through Gymnosperms:
32 Kingdom Plantae
-Viridiplantae = green plants including the green algae
-Multicellular
-Eukaryotic
-Cellulose-rich cell walls
-Carbohydrate food reserve is starch
-Phyla based on lifecycles
-Most plants are terrestrial
Evolutionary Origin of Land Plants
-Evolved from freshwater, green algae (Streptophyta)
Characteristics We See In Land Plants
-Protective cuticle
-protects from water loss
-formed of cutin
-Absent in many bryophytes
-Stoma (pores)
-found in leaves and portion of stems
-function: to permit gas exchange
-Mycorrhizae
Plant Life Cycles
-Alternation of generations
-All plants exhibit alternation of generations
Generalized Life Cycle
-Start with syngamy, which is fertilization or sexual reproduction
-Zygote (2N)
-Sporangia
-Spore Mother cell
-Meiosis where tetrad of spores produce the gametangia which produce gametophyte (1N) which goes through mitosis which produce the antheridia (1N sperm) and archegonia (1N egg)
-Back to syngamy
Evolution In Reproduction
-Reduction in the gametophyte
-Loss of multicellular gametangia (sex organs)
-Increasing specialization for life on land
-Nonvascular plants, to ferns - seedless, to gymnosperms - naked seed, to anthophyta - flowering plants with enclosed seeds
Differences between Vascular and Nonvascular
-Nonvascular lacking vascular tissue
-Nonvascular having smaller sporophyte that are dependent on the gametophyte for food
-Vascular plants, what you see is the sporophyte stage- trees, leaves of the fern, etc. It is dominant.
-Nonvascular plants, when you see the plant, what you see is the gametophyte stage - green part of moss. It is the most apparent, or conspicuous.
-Vascular plants have true roots, stems, and leaves
Nonvascular Plants
-Common among nonvascular plants
-All called bryophytes
-Common names are mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
-Most primitive of the terrestrial plants
-Found in moist places
-Require water external of plant to reproduce sexually
-Rhizoid - slender, usually colorless projections of one or a few cells
-Function is to anchor bryophytes to substrate
Nonvascular Phyla
Phylum Bryophyta
-Mosses
-Largest phylum of nonvascular plants
-Gametophytes are almost always leafy with small, simple leaves that are tufted or creeping
-Most abundant plants in Arctic and Antarctic
-Sensitive to air pollution (same as lichen)
-The sporophyte are yellowish or brownish at maturity
-Having a sporangium or capsule which is first covered with the operculum (lid that covers the spores), then the hooded calyptra at the tip; this is stalked (called seta)
-Protonema - First thread-like, germinating spores
-Examples:
-Peat Moss, used for fuel and soil conditioner
-Sphagnum - moss used in potted plants for water retention
-Mnium - prepared slides in lab
-Unusual mosses
-Copper mosses - only grow in the vicinity of copper and serves as an indicator plant for copper deposits
-Luminous moss - glows with a golden green light -- found in caves along or under the roots of trees
-Irish moss - really an edible algae, grows along northern sea coasts
-Reindeer moss - is really a lichen
-Club moss - really a vascular plant
-Spanish moss - really a flowering plant from pineapple family
Phylum Hepaticophyta
-Liverworts (liver herbs)
-The body (thallus) of the plant with it’s lobes is shaped like a liver
-Only 1/5th of this phylum is shaped as such
-The rest look like mosses
-Gametophyte of liverwort is very diverse
-Sporophyte is usually contained in the gametophyte until it releases spores
-Lab Example: Marchantia - also reproduces asexually by gemmae cups
Phylum Anthocertophyta
-Hornworts
-Smallest group of nonvascular plants (100 species)
-Gametophytes are similar to Marchantia - star-shaped, mostly creeping
-Sporophytes are elongated capsules that stand up from the surface of creeping gametophyte
-Looks like a horn
-Have stomata, are photosynthetic
-Believed this might be the link between nonvascular and vascular plants
-All nonvascular plants’ gametophytes are photosynthetic
-Hornworts are the only nonvascular plant whose sporophytes are photosynthetic
-The are embedded in the gametophyte tissue
Lab Example: Anthoceros
Vascular Phyla
-All vascular plants are homosporous or heterosporous.
Early Vascular Plants
-Homosporous - Produce only one kind of spore
Later Vascular Plants
-Heterosporous - Plants with two morphologically different spores
General Characteristics -
-Sporophyte is large and dominant and nutritionally independent
-Has conducting tissues (vascular system)
-Has specialized leaves, stems, and roots
-Cuticle and Stomata always present
Types of Growth in Vascular Plants
-Primary Growth - results from cell division at the tips of the stems and roots increase in length
-Secondary Growth - results from cell division that takes place in regions around the plant’s periphery -- increase in diameter
Two Types of Conducting Elements-
-Sieve-tube elements - soft-walled cells
-Conduct carbohydrates from areas where they are manufactured in the plant
-These make up the Phloem
-Vessel Members and Tracheids - Hard-walled cells
-Transport water and minerals up from the root
-These make up the Xylem
Vascular Plants are Divided into Seeded and Seedless.
Seedless Vascular Plants-
-All of these plants are from ancient forms
Phylum Pterophyta
-Ferns, Whisk Ferns, Horsetails
-Ferns:
-Most abundant of the seedless plants - over 12,000 species
-Size ranges from ¼” to over 78’ tall
-Most are homosporous
-Some aquatic ferns are heterosporous
-Motile sperm
-Root: is a Rhizome -- a root like subterranean stem, commonly horizontal in position, that produces roots(rhizoid) below and sends up shoots to the upper surface
-Leaves: Fronds
-Sori - Sporangia on back of fronds
-Stalked
-Look like little dots
-Some have a protective covering - indusium (shield-shaped)
-Lab Examples: A common fern with Sori
-Salvina (aquatic fern)
-Value of Ferns -
-Used as ornamental plants
-Used in florist bouquets
-Building Material - tropical ferns - wood resists decay and termites
-Medicinal Value - used as an astringent during childbirth to stop bleeding
-Maidenhair fern is a source of an expectorant
-Whisk Ferns:
-Found in tropics and subtropics
-U.S.: Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, Florida
-Homosporous
-Have Motile sperm
-No leaves
-No differentiation between root and stem
-Branched rhizome has rhizoids and a mycorrhizal fungus to help gather nutrients
-Sporangia locate at the ends of short branches
-Lab Example: Psilotum
Horsetails -
-Common name: Scouring rush
-Ribbed epidermal cells have silica deposits
-Homosporous and herbaceous(no woody material)
-Stems are ribbed, jointed, and photosynthetic
-Has underground rhizomes with roots and nodes
-Sporophytes are called strobili - cone-shaped
-Found on beach or edge of swamp
-Lab Example: Equisetum
Phylum Lycophyta
-Club mosses or quillworts
-Used to be the “tree” plants during the carboniferous era
-Now up to 1 foot high
-Common in moist woodlands of temperate zones - known as ground pines
-Tightly packed, scale-like leaves cover stem and branches
-Leaves are microphylls; have only one strand of vascular tissue
-Homosporous or heterosporous
-Examples in Lab: Lycopodium(homosporous)--some species on endangered list; Selaginella(heterosporous)--resurrection plant
Other representatives of selaginella are small-leafed ground covers.
Seeded Vascular Plants
Functions of the Seed
-For dispersal
-Protects developing sporophyte (embryo)
-Provides food storage
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms -
-Most later vascular plants are heterosporous
Gymnosperms-naked seeds
-Have ovules (fruit) that are not completely enclosed
-The seed contains the embryo, stored food, and a partial seed coat
-Four Phyla
Phylum Cycadophyta
-Cycads (Sago Palm)
-Heterosporous
-Sperm are flagellated and motile
-Palm-like pants
-Tropical and subtropical evergreens
-First appeared in Permian period 270-280 million years ago
-Most primitive of the living seed-bearing plants
-In many ways, resemble the ferns
-Mistaken for palms
-Only 10 Genera, 100 species
-Some are found in very restricted areas
-Many Cycads bear poisonous nut-like seeds
-Lab Example: The florist’s Sago Palm, not a true palm Zamia
-Grown as ornamentals in warm regions and in greenhouses
-Viridiplantae = green plants including the green algae
-Multicellular
-Eukaryotic
-Cellulose-rich cell walls
-Carbohydrate food reserve is starch
-Phyla based on lifecycles
-Most plants are terrestrial
Evolutionary Origin of Land Plants
-Evolved from freshwater, green algae (Streptophyta)
Characteristics We See In Land Plants
-Protective cuticle
-protects from water loss
-formed of cutin
-Absent in many bryophytes
-Stoma (pores)
-found in leaves and portion of stems
-function: to permit gas exchange
-Mycorrhizae
Plant Life Cycles
-Alternation of generations
-All plants exhibit alternation of generations
Generalized Life Cycle
-Start with syngamy, which is fertilization or sexual reproduction
-Zygote (2N)
-Sporangia
-Spore Mother cell
-Meiosis where tetrad of spores produce the gametangia which produce gametophyte (1N) which goes through mitosis which produce the antheridia (1N sperm) and archegonia (1N egg)
-Back to syngamy
Evolution In Reproduction
-Reduction in the gametophyte
-Loss of multicellular gametangia (sex organs)
-Increasing specialization for life on land
-Nonvascular plants, to ferns - seedless, to gymnosperms - naked seed, to anthophyta - flowering plants with enclosed seeds
Differences between Vascular and Nonvascular
-Nonvascular lacking vascular tissue
-Nonvascular having smaller sporophyte that are dependent on the gametophyte for food
-Vascular plants, what you see is the sporophyte stage- trees, leaves of the fern, etc. It is dominant.
-Nonvascular plants, when you see the plant, what you see is the gametophyte stage - green part of moss. It is the most apparent, or conspicuous.
-Vascular plants have true roots, stems, and leaves
Nonvascular Plants
-Common among nonvascular plants
-All called bryophytes
-Common names are mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
-Most primitive of the terrestrial plants
-Found in moist places
-Require water external of plant to reproduce sexually
-Rhizoid - slender, usually colorless projections of one or a few cells
-Function is to anchor bryophytes to substrate
Nonvascular Phyla
Phylum Bryophyta
-Mosses
-Largest phylum of nonvascular plants
-Gametophytes are almost always leafy with small, simple leaves that are tufted or creeping
-Most abundant plants in Arctic and Antarctic
-Sensitive to air pollution (same as lichen)
-The sporophyte are yellowish or brownish at maturity
-Having a sporangium or capsule which is first covered with the operculum (lid that covers the spores), then the hooded calyptra at the tip; this is stalked (called seta)
-Protonema - First thread-like, germinating spores
-Examples:
-Peat Moss, used for fuel and soil conditioner
-Sphagnum - moss used in potted plants for water retention
-Mnium - prepared slides in lab
-Unusual mosses
-Copper mosses - only grow in the vicinity of copper and serves as an indicator plant for copper deposits
-Luminous moss - glows with a golden green light -- found in caves along or under the roots of trees
-Irish moss - really an edible algae, grows along northern sea coasts
-Reindeer moss - is really a lichen
-Club moss - really a vascular plant
-Spanish moss - really a flowering plant from pineapple family
Phylum Hepaticophyta
-Liverworts (liver herbs)
-The body (thallus) of the plant with it’s lobes is shaped like a liver
-Only 1/5th of this phylum is shaped as such
-The rest look like mosses
-Gametophyte of liverwort is very diverse
-Sporophyte is usually contained in the gametophyte until it releases spores
-Lab Example: Marchantia - also reproduces asexually by gemmae cups
Phylum Anthocertophyta
-Hornworts
-Smallest group of nonvascular plants (100 species)
-Gametophytes are similar to Marchantia - star-shaped, mostly creeping
-Sporophytes are elongated capsules that stand up from the surface of creeping gametophyte
-Looks like a horn
-Have stomata, are photosynthetic
-Believed this might be the link between nonvascular and vascular plants
-All nonvascular plants’ gametophytes are photosynthetic
-Hornworts are the only nonvascular plant whose sporophytes are photosynthetic
-The are embedded in the gametophyte tissue
Lab Example: Anthoceros
Vascular Phyla
-All vascular plants are homosporous or heterosporous.
Early Vascular Plants
-Homosporous - Produce only one kind of spore
Later Vascular Plants
-Heterosporous - Plants with two morphologically different spores
General Characteristics -
-Sporophyte is large and dominant and nutritionally independent
-Has conducting tissues (vascular system)
-Has specialized leaves, stems, and roots
-Cuticle and Stomata always present
Types of Growth in Vascular Plants
-Primary Growth - results from cell division at the tips of the stems and roots increase in length
-Secondary Growth - results from cell division that takes place in regions around the plant’s periphery -- increase in diameter
Two Types of Conducting Elements-
-Sieve-tube elements - soft-walled cells
-Conduct carbohydrates from areas where they are manufactured in the plant
-These make up the Phloem
-Vessel Members and Tracheids - Hard-walled cells
-Transport water and minerals up from the root
-These make up the Xylem
Vascular Plants are Divided into Seeded and Seedless.
Seedless Vascular Plants-
-All of these plants are from ancient forms
Phylum Pterophyta
-Ferns, Whisk Ferns, Horsetails
-Ferns:
-Most abundant of the seedless plants - over 12,000 species
-Size ranges from ¼” to over 78’ tall
-Most are homosporous
-Some aquatic ferns are heterosporous
-Motile sperm
-Root: is a Rhizome -- a root like subterranean stem, commonly horizontal in position, that produces roots(rhizoid) below and sends up shoots to the upper surface
-Leaves: Fronds
-Sori - Sporangia on back of fronds
-Stalked
-Look like little dots
-Some have a protective covering - indusium (shield-shaped)
-Lab Examples: A common fern with Sori
-Salvina (aquatic fern)
-Value of Ferns -
-Used as ornamental plants
-Used in florist bouquets
-Building Material - tropical ferns - wood resists decay and termites
-Medicinal Value - used as an astringent during childbirth to stop bleeding
-Maidenhair fern is a source of an expectorant
-Whisk Ferns:
-Found in tropics and subtropics
-U.S.: Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, Florida
-Homosporous
-Have Motile sperm
-No leaves
-No differentiation between root and stem
-Branched rhizome has rhizoids and a mycorrhizal fungus to help gather nutrients
-Sporangia locate at the ends of short branches
-Lab Example: Psilotum
Horsetails -
-Common name: Scouring rush
-Ribbed epidermal cells have silica deposits
-Homosporous and herbaceous(no woody material)
-Stems are ribbed, jointed, and photosynthetic
-Has underground rhizomes with roots and nodes
-Sporophytes are called strobili - cone-shaped
-Found on beach or edge of swamp
-Lab Example: Equisetum
Phylum Lycophyta
-Club mosses or quillworts
-Used to be the “tree” plants during the carboniferous era
-Now up to 1 foot high
-Common in moist woodlands of temperate zones - known as ground pines
-Tightly packed, scale-like leaves cover stem and branches
-Leaves are microphylls; have only one strand of vascular tissue
-Homosporous or heterosporous
-Examples in Lab: Lycopodium(homosporous)--some species on endangered list; Selaginella(heterosporous)--resurrection plant
Other representatives of selaginella are small-leafed ground covers.
Seeded Vascular Plants
Functions of the Seed
-For dispersal
-Protects developing sporophyte (embryo)
-Provides food storage
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms -
-Most later vascular plants are heterosporous
Gymnosperms-naked seeds
-Have ovules (fruit) that are not completely enclosed
-The seed contains the embryo, stored food, and a partial seed coat
-Four Phyla
Phylum Cycadophyta
-Cycads (Sago Palm)
-Heterosporous
-Sperm are flagellated and motile
-Palm-like pants
-Tropical and subtropical evergreens
-First appeared in Permian period 270-280 million years ago
-Most primitive of the living seed-bearing plants
-In many ways, resemble the ferns
-Mistaken for palms
-Only 10 Genera, 100 species
-Some are found in very restricted areas
-Many Cycads bear poisonous nut-like seeds
-Lab Example: The florist’s Sago Palm, not a true palm Zamia
-Grown as ornamentals in warm regions and in greenhouses
Sunday, September 26, 2010
Chapter 31: Fungi
Kingdom Fungi:
-Mycology: study of fungi
1) One of Earth’s obscure lifeforms
- One spanning 86 acres, mostly underground, the Honey Mushroom (Armillaria ostoyae)
- One spanning 2000 acres in Oregon, another Honey Mushroom Honey Mushroom (Armillaria mellea)
-Resemble plants, but lack chloroplasts, so they don’t photosynthesize
-Are not animal, nor do they resemble bacteria or protozoa.
2) Microscopic in size to very large (mushrooms, mildew, molds and morels). Parasitic and saprophytic, major world decomposers.
Characteristics of Fungi:
A) General:
1) Major Decomposers along with bacteria
2) Can cause plant disease, accounting for millions of dollars in crop losses each year.
3) Can cause human diseases such as ringworm, athlete’s foot, and yeast infections (most yeasts filamentous)
B) Nutrition:
-Heterotrophic
-External Digestion: excrete enzymes which break down or “digest” food which is then absorbed by fungi.
1) Extensive network of hyphae provides an enormous surface area for absorption.
2) Animals are heterotrophic by digestion, fungi are heterotrophic by absorption.
-Most fungi are saprotrophic decomposers: break down waste products and dead remains of plants and animals.
-Some are parasitic: they live off the tissues of living plants and animals. (page 606, Figure 31.5)
C) Structure:
-Some are unicellular, such as yeast (not common).
-Most are multicellular eukaryotes.
1) Body (thallus) is a multicellular structure known as the mycelium.
2) A mycelium is a network of filaments called hyphae (page 605, Figure 31.3)
3) Hyphae (plural) Hypha (singular)- slender filaments
-Some have septa- crosswalls that divide the hyphae into cells.
-Septa only form a complete barrier when separating reproductive cells.
-Otherwise, the organism is multi-nucleated with cytoplasm flowing throughout the hyphae.
4) Types of hyphae:
-Heterokayotic: 2 genetically distinct nuclei in the same hyphae.
-Homokaryotic: hyphae with nuclei genetically the same
(Next two types used when discussing reproductive hyphae)
-Dikaryotic: 2 genetically distinct nuclei in the same cell
-Monokaryotic: one nucleus in each cell.
-Coenocytic: aseptate hyphae (no septa- no division between cells- like plasmodium, the "true" slime mold)
-Haustoria: specialized hyphae found in parasitic fungi that penetrates and absorbs nutrients directly from the cells of the host.
5) Cell walls consist of polysaccharides, including chitin, the same substance found in the outer structure of insects and crustaceans.
D) Reproduction:
-Asexual reproduction: involves spores or fragmentation of mycelium
-Sexual reproduction: can occur several ways:
1) Fusion of gametes released from gametangia (only in Ascomycota)
2) Penetration of gametes (or gamete) into the gametangium (only in Basidiomycota).
3) Fusion of gametangia (Zygomycota).
-Both sexual and asexual reproduction produce spores, ensuring dispersal of the species. All spores nonmotile.
E) Four Phyla of Fungi: Classification based on the features related to sexual reproduction.
1) Phylum Chytridiomycota:
-Chytrids (common name)
-Oldest fossil fungi, are the sister phylum to the remaining fungal phyla, found in northern Russia
-Predominantly aquatic
-Only fungus that has flagellated gametes
-The closest relative to fungi in the Kingdom Protista also have flagella.
-One species has been tied to the decline in frog populations worldwide (once classifies as a protist), parasitic.
Lab Example: Allomyces.
2) Phylum Zygomycota:
-Commonly known as zygomycetes
-Approximately 1050 species (small phylum).
-Saprotrophs, living off plant and animal remains in the soil or bakery goods.
-Hyphae are multinucleate, lack septa (except where involved with reproduction).
Lab Example: Rhizopus stolonifer- black bread mold. Distinct characteristics: zygosporangium- results from fusion of gametangia. (page 608, Figure 31.7)
3) Phylum Ascomycota:
-Commonly known as ascomycetes, sac fungi.
-Examples:
a) yeast- unicellular oddity
b) morels- are not mushrooms
c) truffles
d) powdery mildews
-Plant pathogens: Ophiostoma ulmi is the organism that causes Dutch Elm Disease (The organism that causes Chestnut Blight is in this phylum also).
-Distinct characteristics:
a) Formation of conidia- structure (spores) formed during asexual reproduction
b) Formation of ascus- sac-like structure where the zygote is formed, sexual reproduction (pages 610-611, Figure 31.9)
-Yeast: most reproduce asexually via cell fission or budding
a) Most economically useful fungus
b) Used for baking/beer (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)/ wine
c) Are eukaryotic cell of choice for genetic and biomedical research (rapid generation time).
d) Yeast infections: candida, thrush
4) Phylum Basidiomycota
-Known as basidiomycetes, club fungi
-Examples: mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, jelly fungi, and shelf fungi.
-Plant pathogens: rusts and smuts (rusts are brightly colored and smuts look like a black smudge)
-Distinct characteristics:
a) Sexual reproductive structure: basidium, which is a club-shaped spore and is located under the cap of the mushroom or in the tubes at the base of pores in shelf fungi.
-Examples:
a) Birds nest fungi's basidiospore is dispersed by raindrops
b) Stinkhorn- Phallus impudicus, emits a disagreeable odor which attracts files who unintentionally pick up spores and distribute them.
c) Smuts and rusts are club fungi that parasitize cereal crops.
-Rusts often require two different host plants to complete their life cycle; such as apple and juniper.
-Example: Black stem rust of wheat, requires barberry bushes. Blister rust of white pine and black currant.
-Other interesting mushrooms:
a) Agaricus capestris: field mushroom; commercially grown species.
b) Amanita phalloides: destroying, death angel (10-12 hours after consumption = death)
c) Psilocybe mexicanna: used by Mexican Indians for religious ceremonies (contains psilocybin, which is structurally like LSD or mescaline)
d) Claviceps purpurea: ergot fungus, infects rye. Alkaloids from this fungus are used in medicine to cause uterine contraction and to treat circulatory disorders such as migraine headaches. Causes ergotism which is thought to be the cause of the frenzy surrounding the Salem witch trials (lysergic acid)
E) Fungal Associations:
1) Lichens:
-A symbiotic association between fungus (mostly ascomycetes) and a photosynthetic partner (cyanobacteria, green algae, or both).
3 Types:
a) Crustose: compact, found on bare rocks or tree bark
b) Foliose: leaf-like
c) Fruticose: shrub-like (stalked)
-Lichen are indicators of air pollution
Lab Examples: Assorted specimens, slides of Physcis
2) Mycorrhizae
-Greek: Mykes = fungus, Rhizion = root
-Symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots, in about 90% of plants.
-Gives greater absorptive surface for intake of minerals and water
a) replace and perform the same function as root hairs.
b) Important because it helps create larger crops
-2 Types:
a) Endomycorrhizae: (arbuscular mycorrhizae) The fungus is usually a zygomycete. Hyphae penetrate the plant's roots (roughly 200,000 associations of this kind)
b) Ectomycorrhizae: Do not penetrate plant root cells, usually a basidiomycetes.
Example: Truffle- mycorrhizal fungus living in association with oak and beech tree roots. (ascomycete)
(page 616, Figure 31.16)
-Mycology: study of fungi
1) One of Earth’s obscure lifeforms
- One spanning 86 acres, mostly underground, the Honey Mushroom (Armillaria ostoyae)
- One spanning 2000 acres in Oregon, another Honey Mushroom Honey Mushroom (Armillaria mellea)
-Resemble plants, but lack chloroplasts, so they don’t photosynthesize
-Are not animal, nor do they resemble bacteria or protozoa.
2) Microscopic in size to very large (mushrooms, mildew, molds and morels). Parasitic and saprophytic, major world decomposers.
Characteristics of Fungi:
A) General:
1) Major Decomposers along with bacteria
2) Can cause plant disease, accounting for millions of dollars in crop losses each year.
3) Can cause human diseases such as ringworm, athlete’s foot, and yeast infections (most yeasts filamentous)
B) Nutrition:
-Heterotrophic
-External Digestion: excrete enzymes which break down or “digest” food which is then absorbed by fungi.
1) Extensive network of hyphae provides an enormous surface area for absorption.
2) Animals are heterotrophic by digestion, fungi are heterotrophic by absorption.
-Most fungi are saprotrophic decomposers: break down waste products and dead remains of plants and animals.
-Some are parasitic: they live off the tissues of living plants and animals. (page 606, Figure 31.5)
C) Structure:
-Some are unicellular, such as yeast (not common).
-Most are multicellular eukaryotes.
1) Body (thallus) is a multicellular structure known as the mycelium.
2) A mycelium is a network of filaments called hyphae (page 605, Figure 31.3)
3) Hyphae (plural) Hypha (singular)- slender filaments
-Some have septa- crosswalls that divide the hyphae into cells.
-Septa only form a complete barrier when separating reproductive cells.
-Otherwise, the organism is multi-nucleated with cytoplasm flowing throughout the hyphae.
4) Types of hyphae:
-Heterokayotic: 2 genetically distinct nuclei in the same hyphae.
-Homokaryotic: hyphae with nuclei genetically the same
(Next two types used when discussing reproductive hyphae)
-Dikaryotic: 2 genetically distinct nuclei in the same cell
-Monokaryotic: one nucleus in each cell.
-Coenocytic: aseptate hyphae (no septa- no division between cells- like plasmodium, the "true" slime mold)
-Haustoria: specialized hyphae found in parasitic fungi that penetrates and absorbs nutrients directly from the cells of the host.
5) Cell walls consist of polysaccharides, including chitin, the same substance found in the outer structure of insects and crustaceans.
D) Reproduction:
-Asexual reproduction: involves spores or fragmentation of mycelium
-Sexual reproduction: can occur several ways:
1) Fusion of gametes released from gametangia (only in Ascomycota)
2) Penetration of gametes (or gamete) into the gametangium (only in Basidiomycota).
3) Fusion of gametangia (Zygomycota).
-Both sexual and asexual reproduction produce spores, ensuring dispersal of the species. All spores nonmotile.
E) Four Phyla of Fungi: Classification based on the features related to sexual reproduction.
1) Phylum Chytridiomycota:
-Chytrids (common name)
-Oldest fossil fungi, are the sister phylum to the remaining fungal phyla, found in northern Russia
-Predominantly aquatic
-Only fungus that has flagellated gametes
-The closest relative to fungi in the Kingdom Protista also have flagella.
-One species has been tied to the decline in frog populations worldwide (once classifies as a protist), parasitic.
Lab Example: Allomyces.
2) Phylum Zygomycota:
-Commonly known as zygomycetes
-Approximately 1050 species (small phylum).
-Saprotrophs, living off plant and animal remains in the soil or bakery goods.
-Hyphae are multinucleate, lack septa (except where involved with reproduction).
Lab Example: Rhizopus stolonifer- black bread mold. Distinct characteristics: zygosporangium- results from fusion of gametangia. (page 608, Figure 31.7)
3) Phylum Ascomycota:
-Commonly known as ascomycetes, sac fungi.
-Examples:
a) yeast- unicellular oddity
b) morels- are not mushrooms
c) truffles
d) powdery mildews
-Plant pathogens: Ophiostoma ulmi is the organism that causes Dutch Elm Disease (The organism that causes Chestnut Blight is in this phylum also).
-Distinct characteristics:
a) Formation of conidia- structure (spores) formed during asexual reproduction
b) Formation of ascus- sac-like structure where the zygote is formed, sexual reproduction (pages 610-611, Figure 31.9)
-Yeast: most reproduce asexually via cell fission or budding
a) Most economically useful fungus
b) Used for baking/beer (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)/ wine
c) Are eukaryotic cell of choice for genetic and biomedical research (rapid generation time).
d) Yeast infections: candida, thrush
4) Phylum Basidiomycota
-Known as basidiomycetes, club fungi
-Examples: mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, jelly fungi, and shelf fungi.
-Plant pathogens: rusts and smuts (rusts are brightly colored and smuts look like a black smudge)
-Distinct characteristics:
a) Sexual reproductive structure: basidium, which is a club-shaped spore and is located under the cap of the mushroom or in the tubes at the base of pores in shelf fungi.
-Examples:
a) Birds nest fungi's basidiospore is dispersed by raindrops
b) Stinkhorn- Phallus impudicus, emits a disagreeable odor which attracts files who unintentionally pick up spores and distribute them.
c) Smuts and rusts are club fungi that parasitize cereal crops.
-Rusts often require two different host plants to complete their life cycle; such as apple and juniper.
-Example: Black stem rust of wheat, requires barberry bushes. Blister rust of white pine and black currant.
-Other interesting mushrooms:
a) Agaricus capestris: field mushroom; commercially grown species.
b) Amanita phalloides: destroying, death angel (10-12 hours after consumption = death)
c) Psilocybe mexicanna: used by Mexican Indians for religious ceremonies (contains psilocybin, which is structurally like LSD or mescaline)
d) Claviceps purpurea: ergot fungus, infects rye. Alkaloids from this fungus are used in medicine to cause uterine contraction and to treat circulatory disorders such as migraine headaches. Causes ergotism which is thought to be the cause of the frenzy surrounding the Salem witch trials (lysergic acid)
E) Fungal Associations:
1) Lichens:
-A symbiotic association between fungus (mostly ascomycetes) and a photosynthetic partner (cyanobacteria, green algae, or both).
3 Types:
a) Crustose: compact, found on bare rocks or tree bark
b) Foliose: leaf-like
c) Fruticose: shrub-like (stalked)
-Lichen are indicators of air pollution
Lab Examples: Assorted specimens, slides of Physcis
2) Mycorrhizae
-Greek: Mykes = fungus, Rhizion = root
-Symbiotic association between fungi and plant roots, in about 90% of plants.
-Gives greater absorptive surface for intake of minerals and water
a) replace and perform the same function as root hairs.
b) Important because it helps create larger crops
-2 Types:
a) Endomycorrhizae: (arbuscular mycorrhizae) The fungus is usually a zygomycete. Hyphae penetrate the plant's roots (roughly 200,000 associations of this kind)
b) Ectomycorrhizae: Do not penetrate plant root cells, usually a basidiomycetes.
Example: Truffle- mycorrhizal fungus living in association with oak and beech tree roots. (ascomycete)
(page 616, Figure 31.16)
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